Multi plasmid system for the production of influenza virus

ABSTRACT

Vectors and methods for the production of influenza viruses suitable as recombinant influenza vaccines in cell culture are provided. Bi-directional expression vectors for use in a multi-plasmid influenza virus expression system are provided. Additionally, the invention provides methods of producing influenza viruses with enhanced ability to replicate in embryonated chicken eggs and/or cells (e.g., Vero and/or MDCK) and further provides influenza viruses with enhanced replication characteristics. In addition, the present invention includes an improved method of rescue, wherein animal cells (e.g., SF Vero cells) are electroporated with plasmids and vectors of the invention.

This application claims the benefit under 35 U.S.C § 119 (e) of U.S.Provisional Application No. 60/532,164 filed Dec. 23, 2003, which isincorporated by reference herein.

BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION

Influenza viruses are made up of an internal ribonucleoprotein corecontaining a segmented single-stranded RNA genome and an outerlipoprotein envelope lined by a matrix protein. Influenza A and Bviruses each contain eight segments of single stranded RNA with negativepolarity. The influenza A genome encodes at least eleven polypeptides.Segments 1-3 encode the three polypeptides, making up the viralRNA-dependent RNA polymerase. Segment 1 encodes the polymerase complexprotein PB2. The remaining polymerase proteins PB1 and PA are encoded bysegment 2 and segment 3, respectively. In addition, segment 1 of someinfluenza A strains encodes a small protein, PB1-F2, produced from analternative reading frame within the PB1 coding region. Segment 4encodes the hemagglutinin (HA) surface glycoprotein involved in cellattachment and entry during infection. Segment 5 encodes thenucleocapsid nucleoprotein (NP) polypeptide, the major structuralcomponent associated with viral RNA. Segment 6 encodes a neuraminidase(NA) envelope glycoprotein. Segment 7 encodes two matrix proteins,designated M1 and M2, which are translated from differentially splicedmRNAs. Segment 8 encodes NS1 and NS2 (NEP), two nonstructural proteins,which are translated from alternatively spliced mRNA variants.

The eight genome segments of influenza B encode 11 proteins. The threelargest genes code for components of the RNA polymerase, PB1, PB2 andPA. Segment 4 encodes the HA protein. Segment 5 encodes NP. Segment 6encodes the NA protein and the NB protein. Both proteins, NB and NA, aretranslated from overlapping reading frames of a biscistronic mRNA.Segment 7 of influenza B also encodes two proteins: M1 and BM2. Thesmallest segment encodes two products: NS1 is translated from the fulllength RNA, while NS2 is translated from a spliced mRNA variant.

Vaccines capable of producing a protective immune response specific forinfluenza viruses have been produced for over 50 years. Vaccines can becharacterized as whole virus vaccines, split virus vaccines, surfaceantigen vaccines and live attenuated virus vaccines. While appropriateformulations of any of these vaccine types is able to produce a systemicimmune response, live attenuated virus vaccines are also able tostimulate local mucosal immunity in the respiratory tract.

FluMist™ is a live, attenuated vaccine that protects children and adultsfrom influenza illness (Belshe et al. (1998) The efficacy of liveattenuated, cold-adapted, trivalent, intranasal influenza virus vaccinein children N Engl J Med 338:1405-12; Nichol et al. (1999) Effectivenessof live, attenuated intranasal influenza virus vaccine in healthy,working adults: a randomized controlled trial JAMA 282:137-44). FluMist™vaccine strains contain HA and NA gene segments derived from thecurrently circulating wild-type strains along with six gene segments,PB1, PB2, PA, NP, M and NS, from a common master donor virus (MDV). TheMDV for influenza A strains of FluMist (MDV-A), was created by serialpassage of the wt A/Ann Arbor/6/60 (A/AA/6/60) strain in primary chickenkidney tissue culture at successively lower temperatures (Maassab (1967)Adaptation and growth characteristics of influenza virus at 25 degreesC. Nature 213:612-4). MDV-A replicates efficiently at 25° C. (ca, coldadapted), but its growth is restricted at 38 and 39° C. (ts, temperaturesensitive). Additionally, this virus does not replicate in the lungs ofinfected ferrets (att, attenuation). The ts phenotype is believed tocontribute to the attenuation of the vaccine in humans by restrictingits replication in all but the coolest regions of the respiratory tract.The stability of this property has been demonstrated in animal modelsand clinical studies. In contrast to the ts phenotype of influenzastrains created by chemical mutagenesis, the ts property of MDV-A didnot revert following passage through infected hamsters or in shedisolates from children (for a recent review, see Murphy & Coelingh(2002) Principles underlying the development and use of live attenuatedcold-adapted influenza A and B virus vaccines Viral Immunol 15:295-323).

Clinical studies in over 20,000 adults and children involving 12separate 6:2 reassortant strains have shown that these vaccines areattenuated, safe and efficacious (Belshe et al. (1998) The efficacy oflive attenuated, cold-adapted, trivalent, intranasal influenza virusvaccine in children N Engl J Med 338:1405-12; Boyce et al. (2000) Safetyand immunogenicity of adjuvanted and unadjuvanted subunit influenzavaccines administered intranasally to healthy adults Vaccine 19:217-26;Edwards et al. (1994) A randomized controlled trial of cold adapted andinactivated vaccines for the prevention of influenza A disease J InfectDis 169:68-76 ; Nichol et al. (1999) Effectiveness of live, attenuatedintranasal influenza virus vaccine in healthy, working adults: arandomized controlled trial JAMA 282:137-44). Reassortants carrying thesix internal genes of MDV-A and the two HA and NA gene segments of thewt virus (6:2 reassortant) consistently maintain ca, ts and attphenotypes (Maassab et al. (1982) Evaluation of a cold-recombinantinfluenza virus vaccine in ferrets J Infect Dis 146:780-900).

To date, all commercially available influenza vaccines in the UnitedStates have been propagated in embryonated hen's eggs. Althoughinfluenza virus grows well in hen's eggs, production of vaccine isdependent on the availability of eggs. Supplies of eggs must beorganized, and strains for vaccine production selected months in advanceof the next flue season, limiting the flexibility of this approach, andoften resulting in delays and shortages in production and distribution.Unfortunately, some influenza vaccine strains, such as the prototypeA/Fujian/411/02 strain that circulated during the 2003-04 season, do notreplicate well in embryonated chicken eggs, and have to be isolated bycell culture a costly and time consuming procedure. The presentinvention further provides a new technology to increase the ability ofvaccine strains to replicate in embryonated chicken eggs. Furthermore,the present invention allows for more efficient and cost effectiveproduction of influenza vaccines.

Systems for producing influenza viruses in cell culture have also beendeveloped in recent years (See, e.g., Furminger. Vaccine Production, inNicholson et al. (eds) Textbook of Influenza pp. 324-332; Merten et al.(1996) Production of influenza virus in cell cultures for vaccinepreparation, in Cohen & Shafferman (eds) Novel Strategies in Design andProduction of Vaccines pp. 141-151). Typically, these methods involvethe infection of suitable immortalized host cells with a selected strainof virus. While eliminating many of the difficulties related to vaccineproduction in hen's eggs, not all pathogenic strains of influenza growwell and can be produced according to established tissue culturemethods. In addition, many strains with desirable characteristics, e.g.,attenuation, temperature sensitivity and cold adaptation, suitable forproduction of live attenuated vaccines, have not been successfully grownin tissue culture using established methods.

Production of influenza viruses from recombinant DNA would significantlyincrease the flexibility and utility of tissue culture methods forinfluenza vaccine production. Recently, systems for producing influenzaA viruses from recombinant plasmids incorporating cDNAs encoding theviral genome have been reported (See, e.g., Neumann et al. (1999)Generation of influenza A virus entirely from cloned cDNAs. Proc NatlAcad Sci USA 96:9345-9350; Fodor et al. (1999) Rescue of influenza Avirus from recombinant DNA. J. Virol 73:9679-9682; Hoffmann et al.(2000) A DNA transfection system for generation of influenza A virusfrom eight plasmids Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 97:6108-6113; WO 01/83794).These systems offer the potential to produce recombinant viruses, andreassortant viruses expressing the immunogenic HA and NA proteins fromany selected strain. However, unlike influenza A virus, no reports havebeen published describing plasmid-only systems for influenza B virus.

Additionally, none of the currently available plasmid only systems aresuitable for generating attenuated, temperature sensitive, cold adaptedstrains suitable for live attenuated vaccine production. The presentinvention provides an eight plasmid system for the generation ofinfluenza B virus entirely from cloned cDNA, and methods for theproduction of attenuated live influenza A and B virus suitable forvaccine formulations, such as live virus vaccine formulations useful forintranasal administration, as well as numerous other benefits that willbecome apparent upon review of the specification.

SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION

The present invention relates to a multi-vector system for theproduction of influenza viruses in cell culture, and to methods forproducing recombinant and reassortant influenza viruses, including,e.g., attenuated (att), cold adapted (ca) and/or temperature sensitive(ts) influenza viruses, suitable as vaccines, including live attenuatedinfluenza vaccines, such as those suitable for administration in anintranasal vaccine formulation.

In a first aspect the invention provides vectors and methods forproducing recombinant influenza B virus in cell culture, e.g., in theabsence of helper virus (i.e., a helper virus free cell culture system).The methods of the invention involve introducing a plurality of vectors,each of which incorporates a portion of an influenza B virus into apopulation of host cells capable of supporting viral replication. Thehost cells are cultured under conditions permissive for viral growth,and influenza viruses are recovered. In some embodiments, the influenzaB viruses are attenuated viruses, cold adapted viruses and/ortemperature sensitive viruses. For example, in an embodiment, thevector-derived recombinant influenza B viruses are attenuated, coldadapted, temperature sensitive viruses, such as are suitable foradministration as a live attenuated vaccine, e.g., in a intranasalvaccine formulation. In an exemplary embodiment, the viruses areproduced by introducing a plurality of vectors incorporating all or partof an influenza B/Ann Arbor/1/66 virus genome, e.g., a ca B/AnnArbor/1/66 virus genome.

For example, in some embodiments, the influenza B viruses areartificially engineered influenza viruses incorporating one or moreamino acid substitutions which influence the characteristic biologicalproperties of influenza strain ca B/Ann Arbor/1/66. Such influenzaviruses include mutations resulting in amino acid substitutions at oneor more of positions PB1³⁹¹, PB1⁵⁸¹, PB1⁶⁶¹, PB2²⁶⁵ and NP³⁴, such as:PB1³⁹¹, (K391E), PB1⁵⁸¹ (E581G), PB1⁶⁶¹ (A661T), PB2²⁶⁵ (N265S) and Np34(D34G). Any mutation (at one or more of these positions) whichindividually or in combination results in increased temperaturesensitivity, cold adaptation or attenuation relative to wild typeviruses is a suitable mutation in the context of the present invention.

In some embodiments, a plurality of vectors incorporating at least the 6internal genome segments of a one influenza B strain along with one ormore genome segments encoding immunogenic influenza surface antigens ofa different influenza strain are introduced into a population of hostcells. For example, at least the 6 internal genome segments of aselected attenuated, cold adapted and/or temperature sensitive influenzaB strain, e.g., a ca, att, ts strain of B/Ann Arbor/1/66 or anartificially engineered influenza B strain including an amino acidsubstitution at one or more of the positions specified above, areintroduced into a population of host cells along with one or moresegments encoding immunogenic antigens derived from another virusstrain. Typically the immunogenic surface antigens include either orboth of the hemagglutinin (HA) and/or neuraminidase (NA) antigens. Inembodiments where a single segment encoding an immunogenic surfaceantigen is introduced, the 7 complementary segments of the selectedvirus are also introduced into the host cells.

In certain embodiments, a plurality of plasmid vectors incorporatinginfluenza B virus genome segments are introduced into a population ofhost cells. For example, 8 plasmids, each of which incorporates adifferent genome segment are utilized to introduce a complete influenzaB genome into the host cells. Alternatively, a greater number ofplasmids, incorporating smaller genomic subsequences can be employed.

Typically, the plasmid vectors of the invention are bi-directionalexpression vectors. A bi-directional expression vector of the inventiontypically includes a first promoter and a second promoter, wherein thefirst and second promoters are operably linked to alternative strands ofthe same double stranded cDNA encoding the viral nucleic acid includinga segment of the influenza virus genome. Optionally, the bi-directionalexpression vector includes a polyadenylation signal and/or a terminatorsequence. For example, the polyadenylation signal and/or the terminatorsequence can be located flanking a segment of the influenza virus genomeinternal to the two promoters. One favorable polyadenylation signal inthe context of the invention is the SV40 polyadenylation signal. Anexemplary plasmid vector of the invention is the plasmid pAD3000,illustrated in FIG. 1.

The vectors are introduced into host cells capable of supporting thereplication of influenza virus from the vector promoters. Favorableexamples of host cells include Vero cells, Per.C6 cells, BHK cells, PCKcells, MDCK cells, MDBK cells, 293 cells (e.g., 293T cells), and COScells. In combination with the pAD3000 plasmid vectors described herein,Vero cells, 293 cells, and COS cells are particularly suitable. In someembodiments, co-cultures of a mixture of at least two of these celllines, e.g., a combination of COS and MDCK cells or a combination of293T and MDCK cells, constitute the population of host cells.

The host cells including the influenza B vectors are then grown inculture under conditions permissive for replication and assembly ofviruses. Typically, host cells incorporating the influenza B plasmids ofthe invention are cultured at a temperature below 37° C., preferably ata temperature equal to, or less than, 35° C. Typically, the cells arecultured at a temperature between 32° C. and 35° C. In some embodiments,the cells are cultured at a temperature between about 32° C. and 34° C.,e.g., at about 33° C. Following culture for a suitable period of time topermit replication of the virus to high titer, recombinant and/orreassortant viruses are recovered. Optionally, the recovered viruses canbe inactivated.

The invention also provides broadly applicable methods of producingrecombinant influenza viruses in cell culture by introducing a pluralityof vectors incorporating an influenza virus genome into a population ofhost cells capable of supporting replication of influenza virus,culturing the cells at a temperature less than or equal to 35° C., andrecovering influenza viruses.

In certain embodiments, a plurality of plasmid vectors incorporatinginfluenza virus genome segments are introduced into a population of hostcells. In certain embodiments, 8 plasmids, each of which incorporates adifferent genome segment are utilized to introduce a complete influenzagenome into the host cells. Typically, the plasmid vectors of theinvention are bi-directional expression vectors. An exemplary plasmidvector of the invention is the plasmid pAD3000, illustrated in FIG. 1.

In some embodiments, the influenza viruses correspond to an influenza Bvirus. In some embodiments, the influenza viruses correspond to aninfluenza A virus. In certain embodiments, the methods includerecovering recombinant and/or reassortant influenza viruses capable ofeliciting an immune response upon administration, e.g., intranasaladministration, to a subject. In some embodiments, the viruses areinactivated prior to administration, in other embodiments,live-attenuated viruses are administered. Recombinant and reassortantinfluenza A and influenza B viruses produced according to the methods ofthe invention are also a feature of the invention.

In certain embodiments, the viruses include an attenuated influenzavirus, a cold adapted influenza virus, a temperature sensitive influenzavirus, or a virus with any combination of these desirable properties. Inone embodiment, the influenza virus incorporates an influenza B/AnnArbor/1/66 strain virus, e.g., a cold adapted, temperature sensitive,attenuated strain of B/Ann Arbor/1/66. In another embodiment, theinfluenza virus incorporates an influenza A/Ann Arbor/6/60 strain virus,e.g., a cold adapted, temperature sensitive, attenuated strain of A/AnnArbor/6/60. In another embodiment of the invention, the viruses areartificially engineered influenza viruses incorporating one or moresubstituted amino acid which influences the characteristic biologicalproperties of, e.g., ca A/Ann Arbor/6/60 or ca B/Ann Arbor/1/66. Suchsubstituted amino acids favorably correspond to unique amino acids of caA/Ann Arbor/6/60 or ca B/Ann Arbor/1/66, e.g., in an A strain virus:PB1³⁹¹ (K391E), PB1⁵⁸¹ (E581G), PB1⁶⁶¹ (A661T), PB2²⁶⁵ (N265S) and NP³⁴(D34G); and, in a B strain virus: PB2⁶³⁰ (S630R); PA⁴³¹ (V431M); PA⁴⁹⁷(Y497H); NP⁵⁵ (T55A); NP¹¹⁴ (V114A); NP⁴¹⁰ (P410H); NP⁵⁰⁹ (A509T); M1¹⁵⁹(H159Q) and M1¹⁸³ (M183V). Similarly, other amino acid substitutions atany of these positions resulting in temperature sensitivity, coldadaptation and/or attenuation are encompassed by the viruses and methodsof the invention.

Optionally, reassortant viruses are produced by introducing vectorsincluding the six internal genes of a viral strain selected for itsfavorable properties regarding vaccine production, in combination withthe genome segments encoding the surface antigens (HA and NA) of aselected, e.g., pathogenic strain. For example, the HA segment isfavorably selected from a pathogenically relevant H1, H3 or B strain, asis routinely performed for vaccine production. Similarly, the HA segmentcan be selected from an emerging pathogenic strain such as an H2 strain(e.g., H2N2), an H5 strain (e.g., H5N1) or an H7 strain (e.g., H7N7).Alternatively, the seven complementary gene segments of the first strainare introduced in combination with either the HA or NA encoding segment.In certain embodiments, the internal gene segments are derived from theinfluenza B/Ann Arbor/1/66 or the A/Ann Arbor/6/60 strain.

Additionally, the invention provides methods for producing novelinfluenza viruses with desirable properties relevant to vaccineproduction, e.g., temperature sensitive, attenuated, and/or coldadapted, influenza viruses, as well as influenza vaccines including suchnovel influenza viruses. In certain embodiments, novel influenza Astrain virus is produced by introducing mutations that result amino acidsubstitutions at one or more specified positions demonstrated herein tobe important for the temperature sensitive phenotype, e.g., PB1³⁹¹,PB1⁵⁸¹, PB1⁶⁶¹, PB2²⁶⁵ and NP³⁴. For example, mutations are introducedat nucleotide positions PB1¹¹⁹⁵, PB1¹⁷⁶⁶, PB1²⁰⁰⁵, PB2⁸²¹ and NP¹⁴⁶, orother nucleotide positions resulting in an amino acid substitution atthe specified amino acid position. Any mutation (at one or more of thesepositions) which individually or in combination results in increasedtemperature sensitivity, cold adaptation or attenuation relative to wildtype viruses is a suitable mutation in the context of the presentinvention. For example; mutations selected from among PB1³⁹¹ (K391E),PB1⁵⁸¹ (E581G), PB1⁶⁶¹ (A661T), PB2²⁶⁵ (N265S) and NP³⁴ (D34G) arefavorably introduced into the genome of a wild type influenza A strain,e.g., PR8, to produce a temperature sensitive variant suitable foradministration as a live attenuated vaccine. To increase stability ofthe desired phenotype, a plurality of mutations are typicallyintroduced. Following introduction of the selected mutation(s) into theinfluenza genome, the mutated influenza genome is replicated underconditions in which virus is produced. For example, the mutatedinfluenza virus genome can be replicated in hens' eggs. Alternatively,the influenza virus genome can be replicated in cell culture. In thelatter case, the virus is optionally further amplified in hens' eggs toincrease the titer. Temperature sensitive, and optionally, attenuatedand/or cold adapted viruses produced according to the methods of theinvention are also a feature of the invention, as are vaccines includingsuch viruses. Similarly, novel recombinant viral nucleic acidsincorporating one or more mutations at positions PB1³⁹¹, PB1⁵⁸¹, PB1⁶⁶¹,PB2²⁶⁵ and NP³⁴, e.g., mutations selected from among PB1³⁹¹ (K391E),PB1⁵⁸¹ (E581G), PB1⁶⁶¹ (A661T), PB2²⁶⁵ (N265S) and NP³⁴ (D34G), andpolypeptides with such amino acid substitutions are a feature of theinvention.

Likewise, the methods presented herein are adapted to producing novelinfluenza B strains with temperature sensitive, and optionallyattenuated and/or cold adapted phenotypes by introducing one or morespecified mutations into an influenza B genome. For example, one or moremutations resulting in an amino acid substitution at a position selectedfrom among PB2⁶³⁰; PA⁴³¹; PA⁴⁹⁷; NP⁵⁵; NP¹¹⁴; NP⁴¹⁰; NP509; M1¹⁵⁹ andM1¹⁸³ are introduced into an influenza B strain genome to produce atemperature sensitive influenza B virus. Exemplary amino acidsubstitutions include the following: : PB2⁶³⁰ (S630R); PA⁴³¹ (V431M);PA⁴⁹⁷ (Y497H); NP⁵⁵ (T55A); NP¹¹⁴ (V114A); NP⁴¹⁰ (P410H); NP⁵⁰⁹ (A509T);M1¹⁵⁹ (H159Q) and M1¹⁸³ (M183V). As indicated above, vaccinesincorporating such viruses as well as nucleic acids and polypeptidesincorporating these mutations and amino acid substitutions are allfeatures of the invention.

Accordingly, influenza viruses incorporating the mutations of theinvention are a feature of the invention regardless of the method inwhich they are produced. That is, the invention encompasses influenzastrains including the mutations of the invention, e.g., any influenza Avirus with an amino acid substitution relative to wild type at one ormore positions selected from among: PB1³⁹¹, PB1⁵⁸¹, PB1⁶⁶¹, PB2²⁶⁵ andNP³⁴ or any influenza B virus with an amino acid substitution relativeto wild type at one or more positions selected from among: PB2⁶³⁰;PA⁴³¹; PA⁴⁹⁷; NP⁵⁵; NP¹¹⁴; NP⁴¹⁰; NP⁵⁰⁹; M1¹⁵⁹ and M1¹⁸³, with theproviso that the strains ca A/Ann Arbor/6/60 and B/Ann Arbor/1/66 arenot considered a feature of the present invention. In certain preferredembodiments, the influenza A viruses include a plurality ofmutationsselected from among PB1³⁹¹ (K391E), PB1⁵⁸¹ (E581G), PB1⁶⁶¹ (A661T),PB2²⁶⁵ (N265S) and NP³⁴ (D34G); and the influenza B viruses include aplurality of mutations selected from among PB2⁶³⁰ (S630R); PA⁴³¹(V431M); PA⁴⁹⁷ (Y497H); NP⁵⁵ (T55A); NP¹¹⁴ (V114A); NP⁴¹⁰ (P410H); NP⁵⁰⁹(A509T); M1¹⁵⁹ (H159Q) and M1¹⁸³ (M183V), respectively.

In one embodiment, a plurality of plasmid vectors incorporating theinfluenza virus genome are introduced into host cells. For example,segments of an influenza virus genome can be incorporated into at least8 plasmid vectors. In one preferred embodiment, segments of an influenzavirus genome are incorporated into 8 plasmids. For example, each of 8plasmids can favorably incorporate a different segment of the influenzavirus genome.

The vectors of the invention can be bi-directional expression vectors. Abi-directional expression vector of the invention typically includes afirst promoter and a second promoter, wherein the first and secondpromoters are operably linked to alternative strands of the same doublestranded viral nucleic acid including a segment of the influenza virusgenome. Optionally, the bi-directional expression vector includes apolyadenylation signal and/or a terminator sequence. For example, thepolyadenylation signal and/or the terminator sequence can be locatedflanking a segment of the influenza virus genome internal to the twopromoters. One favorable polyadenylation signal in the context of theinvention is the SV40 polyadenylation signal. An exemplary plasmidvector of the invention is the plasmid pAD3000, illustrated in FIG. 1.

Any host cell capable of supporting the replication of influenza virusfrom the vector promoters is suitable in the context of the presentinvention. Favorable examples of host cells include Vero cells, Per.C6cells, BHK cells, PCK cells, MDCK cells, MDBK cells, 293 cells (e.g.,293T cells), and COS cells. In combination with the pAD3000 plasmidvectors described herein, Vero cells, 293 cells, COS cells areparticularly suitable. In some embodiments, co-cultures of a mixture ofat least two of these cell lines, e.g., a combination of COS and MDCKcells or a combination of 293T and MDCK cells, constitute the populationof host cells.

A feature of the invention is the culture of host cells incorporatingthe plasmids of the invention at a temperature below 37° C., preferablyat a temperature equal to, or less than, 35° C. Typically, the cells arecultured at a temperature between 32° C. and 35° C. In some embodiments,the cells are cultured at a temperature between about 32° C. and 34° C.,e.g., at about 33° C.

Another aspect of the invention relates to novel methods for rescuingrecombinant or reassortant influenza A or influenza B viruses (i.e.,wild type and variant strains of influenza A and/or influenza viruses)from Vero cells in culture. A plurality of vectors incorporating aninfluenza virus genome is electroporated into a population of Verocells. The cells are grown under conditions permissive for viralreplication, e.g., in the case of cold adapted, attenuated, temperaturesensitive virus strains, the Vero cells are grown at a temperature below37° C., preferably at a temperature equal to, or less than, 35° C.Typically, the cells are cultured at a temperature between 32° C. and35° C. In some embodiments, the cells are cultured at a temperaturebetween about 32° C. and 34° C., e.g., at about 33° C. Optionally (e.g.,for vaccine production), the Vero cells are grown in serum free mediumwithout any animal-derived products.

In the methods of the invention described above, viruses are recoveredfollowing culture of the host cells incorporating the influenza genomeplasmids. In some embodiments, the recovered viruses are recombinantviruses. In some embodiments, the viruses are reassortant influenzaviruses having genetic contributions from more than one parental strainof virus. Optionally, the recovered recombinant or reassortant virusesare further amplified by passage in cultured cells or in hens' eggs.

Optionally, the recovered viruses are inactivated. In some embodiments,the recovered viruses comprise an influenza vaccine. For example, therecovered influenza vaccine can be a reassortant influenza viruses(e.g., 6:2 or 7:1 reassortant viruses) having an HA and/or NA antigenderived from a selected strain of influenza A or influenza B. In certainfavorable embodiments, the reassortant influenza viruses have anattenuated phenotype. Optionally, the reassortant viruses are coldadapted and/or temperature sensitive, e.g., an attenuated, cold adaptedor temperature sensitive influenza B virus having one or more amino acidsubstitutions selected from the substitutions of Table 17. Suchinfluenza viruses are useful, for example, as live attenuated vaccinesfor the prophylactic production of an immune response specific for aselected, e.g., pathogenic influenza strain. Influenza viruses, e.g.,attenuated reassortant viruses, produced according to the methods of theinvention are a feature of the invention.

In another aspect, the invention relates to methods for producing arecombinant influenza virus vaccine involving introducing a plurality ofvectors incorporating an influenza virus genome into a population ofhost cells capable of supporting replication of influenza virus,culturing the host cells at a temperature less than or equal to 35° C.,and recovering an influenza virus capable of eliciting an immuneresponse upon administration to a subject. The vaccines of the inventioncan be either influenza A or influenza B strain viruses. In someembodiments, the influenza vaccine viruses include an attenuatedinfluenza virus, a cold adapted influenza virus, or a temperaturesensitive influenza virus. In certain embodiments, the viruses possess acombination of these desirable properties. In an embodiment, theinfluenza virus contains an influenza A/Ann Arbor/6/60 strain virus. Inanother embodiment, the influenza virus incorporates an influenza B/AnnArbor/1/66 strain virus. Alternatively, the vaccine includesartificially engineered influenza A or influenza B viruses incorporatingat least one substituted amino acid which influences the characteristicbiological properties of ca A/Ann Arbor/6/60 or ca/B/Ann Arbor/1/66,such as a unique amino acid of these strains. For example, vaccinesencompassed by the invention include artificially engineered recombinantand reassortant influenza A viruses including at least one mutationresulting in an amino acid substitution at a position selected fromamong PB1³⁹¹, PB1⁵⁸¹, PB1⁶⁶¹, PB2²⁶⁵ and NP³⁴ and artificiallyengineered recombinant and reassortant influenza B viruses including atleast one mutation resulting in an amino acid substitution at a positionselected from among PB2⁶³⁰, PA⁴³¹, PA⁴⁹⁷, NP⁵⁵, NP¹¹⁴, NP⁴¹⁰, NP⁵⁰⁹,M1¹⁵⁹ and M1¹⁸³.

In some embodiments, the virus includes a reassortant influenza virus(e.g., a 6:2 or 7:1 reassortant) having viral genome segments derivedfrom more than one influenza virus strain. For example, a reassortantinfluenza virus vaccine favorably includes an HA and/or NA surfaceantigen derived from a selected strain of influenza A or B, incombination with the internal genome segments of a virus strain selectedfor its desirable properties with respect to vaccine production. Often,it is desirable to select the strain of influenza from which the HAand/or NA encoding segments are derived based on predictions of local orworld-wide prevalence of pathogenic strains (e.g., as described above).In some cases, the virus strain contributing the internal genomesegments is an attenuated, cold adapted and/or temperature sensitiveinfluenza strain, e.g., of A/Ann Arbor/6/60, B/Ann Arbor/1/66, or anartificially engineered influenza strain having one or more amino acidsubstitutions resulting in the desired phenotype, e.g., influenza Aviruses including at least one mutation resulting in an amino acidsubstitution at a position selected from among PB1³⁹¹, PB1⁵⁸¹, PB1⁶⁶¹,PB2²⁶⁵ and NP³⁴ and influenza B viruses including at least one mutationresulting in an amino acid substitution at a position selected fromamong PB2⁶³⁰, PA⁴³¹, PA⁴⁹⁷, NP⁵⁵, NP¹¹⁴, NP⁴¹⁰, NP⁵⁰⁹, M1¹⁵⁹ and M1¹⁸³.For example, favorable reassortant viruses include artificiallyengineered influenza A viruses with one or more amino acid substitutionselected from among PB1³⁹¹ (K391E), PB1⁵⁸¹ (E581G), PB1⁶⁶¹ (A661T),PB2²⁶⁵ (N265S) and NP³⁴ (D34G); and influenza B viruses including one ormore amino acid substitutions selected from among PB2⁶³⁰ (S630R); PA⁴³¹(V431M); PA⁴⁹⁷ (Y497H); NP⁵⁵ (T55A); NP¹¹⁴ (V114A); NP⁴¹⁰ (P410H); NP⁵⁰⁹(A509T); M1¹⁵⁹ (H159Q) and M1¹⁸³ (M183V).

If desired, the influenza vaccine viruses are inactivated upon recovery.

Influenza virus vaccines, including attenuated live vaccines, producedby the methods of the invention are also a feature of the invention. Incertain favorable embodiments the influenza virus vaccines arereassortant virus vaccines.

Another aspect of the invention provides plasmids that arebi-directional expression vectors. The bi-directional expression vectorsof the invention incorporate a first promoter inserted between a secondpromoter and a polyadenylation site, e.g., an SV40 polyadenylation site.In an embodiment, the first promoter and the second promoter can besituated in opposite orientations flanking at least one cloning site. Anexemplary vector of the invention is the plasmid pAD3000, illustrated inFIG. 1.

In some embodiments, at least one segment of an influenza virus genomeis inserted into the cloning site, e.g., as a double stranded nucleicacid. For example, a vector of the invention includes a plasmid having afirst promoter inserted between a second promoter and an SV40polyadenylation site, wherein the first promoter and the second promoterare situated in opposite orientations flanking at least one segment ofan influenza virus.

Kits including one or more expression vectors of the invention are alsoa feature of the invention. Typically, the kits also include one or moreof: a cell line capable of supporting influenza virus replication, abuffer, a culture medium, an instruction set, a packaging material, anda container. In some embodiments, the kit includes a plurality ofexpression vectors, each of which includes at least one segment of aninfluenza virus genome. For example, kits including a plurality ofexpression vectors each including one of the internal genome segments ofa selected virus strain, e.g., selected for its desirable propertieswith respect to vaccine production or administration, are a feature ofthe invention. For example, the selected virus strain can be anattenuated, cold adapted and/or temperature sensitive strain, e.g.,A/Ann Arbor/6/60 or B/Ann Arbor/1/66, or an alternative strain with thedesired properties, such as an artificially engineered strain having oneor more amino acid substitutions as described herein, e.g., in Table 17.In an embodiment, the kit includes a expression vectors incorporatingmembers of a library of nucleic acids encoding variant HA and/or NAantigens.

Productively growing cell cultures including at least one cellincorporating a plurality of vectors including an influenza virusgenome, at a temperature less than or equal to 35° C., is also a featureof the invention. The composition can also include a cell culturemedium. In some embodiments, the plurality of vectors includesbi-directional expression vectors, e.g., comprising a first promoterinserted between a second promoter and an SV40 polyadenylation site. Forexample, the first promoter and the second promoter can be situated inopposite orientations flanking at least one segment of an influenzavirus. The cell cultures of the invention are maintained at atemperature less than or equal to 35° C., such as between about 32° C.and 35° C., typically between about 32° C. and about 34° C., forexample, at about 33° C.

The invention also includes a cell culture system including aproductively growing cell culture of at least one cell incorporating aplurality of vectors comprising a an influenza virus genome, asdescribed above, and a regulator for maintaining the culture at atemperature less than or equal to 35° C. For example, the regulatorfavorably maintains the cell culture at a temperature between about 32°C. and 35° C., typically between about 32° C. and about 34° C., e.g., atabout 33° C.

Another feature of the invention are artificially engineered recombinantor reassortant influenza viruses including one or more amino acidsubstitutions which influence temperature sensitivity, cold adaptationand/or attenuation. For example, artificially engineered influenza Aviruses having one or more amino acid substitution at a positionselected from among: PB1³⁹¹, PB1⁵⁸¹, PB1⁶⁶¹, PB2²⁶⁵ and NP³⁴ andartificially engineered influenza B viruses having one or more aminoacid substitutions at a position selected from among PB2⁶³⁰, PA⁴³¹,PA⁴⁹⁷, NP⁵⁵, NP¹¹⁴, NP⁴¹⁰, NP⁵⁰⁹, M1¹⁵⁹ and M1¹⁸³ are favorableembodiments of the invention. Exemplary embodiments include influenza Aviruses with any one or more of the following amino acid substitutions:PB1³⁹¹ (K391E), PB1⁵⁸¹ (E581G), PB1⁶⁶¹ (A661T), PB2²⁶⁵ (N265S) and NP³⁴(D34G); and influenza B viruses with any one or more of the followingamino acid substitutions: PB2⁶³⁰ (S630R); PA⁴³¹ (V431M); PA⁴⁹⁷ (Y497H);NP⁵⁵ (T55A); NP¹¹⁴ (V114A); NP⁴¹⁰ (P410H); NP⁵⁰⁹ (A509T); M1¹⁵⁹ (H159Q)and M1¹⁸³ (M183V). In certain embodiments, the viruses include aplurality of mutations, such as one, two, three, four, five, six, seven,eight or nine amino acid substitutions at positions identified above.Accordingly, artificially engineered influenza A viruses having aminoacid substitutions at all five positions indicated above, e.g., PB1³⁹¹(K391E), PB1⁵⁸¹ (E581G), PB1⁶⁶¹ (A661T), PB2²⁶⁵ (N265S) and NP³⁴ (D34G)and artificially engineered influenza B viruses having amino acidsubstitutions at eight or all nine of the positions indicated above,e.g., PB2⁶³⁰ (S630R); PA⁴³¹ (V431M); PA⁴⁹⁷ (Y497H); NP⁵⁵ (T55A); NP¹¹⁴(V114A); NP⁴¹⁰ (P410H); NP⁵⁰⁹ (A509T); M1¹⁵⁹ (H159Q) and M1¹⁸³ (M183V),are encompassed by the invention. In addition, the viruses can includeone or more additional amino acid substitutions not enumerated above.

In certain embodiments, the artificially engineered influenza virusesare temperature sensitive influenza viruses, cold adapted influenzaviruses and/or attenuated influenza viruses. For example, a temperaturesensitive influenza virus according to the invention typically exhibitsbetween about 2.0 and 5.0 logio reduction in growth at 39° C. ascompared to a wild type influenza virus. For example, a temperaturesensitive virus favorably exhibits at least about 2.0 log₁₀, at leastabout 3.0 log₁₀, at least about 4.0 log₁₀, or at least about 4.5 log₁₀reduction in growth at 39° C. relative to that of a wild type influenzavirus. Typically, but not necessarily, a temperature sensitive influenzavirus retains robust growth characteristics at 33° C. An attenuatedinfluenza virus of the invention typically exhibits between about a 2.0and a 5.0 log₁₀ reduction in growth in a ferret attenuation assay ascompared to a wild type influenza virus. For example, an attenuatedinfluenza virus of the invention exhibits at least about a 2.0 log₁₀,frequently about a 3.0 log₁₀, and favorably at least about a 4.0 log₁₀reduction in growth in a ferret attenuation assay relative to wild typeinfluenza virus.

The present invention also relates to the identification andmanipulation of amino acid residues in HA and NA which affect influenzavirus replication in cells and embryonated chicken eggs. The presentinvention further relates to the use of reverse genetics technology togenerate HA and NA influenza virus vaccine variants with improvedreplication in embryonated chicken eggs and/or cells. The inventionfurther relates to methods for modulating HA receptor binding activityand/or NA neuraminidase activity. Additionally, the invention providesinfluenza viruses with enhanced ability to replicate in embryonatedchicken eggs and/or cells.

In one embodiment the invention provides methods for manipulating theamino acid residues of HA and/or NA to increase the ability of aninfluenza virus to replicate in embryonated chicken eggs and/or cells.The method involves the introduction of amino acid residuessubstitutions in HA and/or NA and makes use of methods of producinginfluenza virus in cell culture by introducing a plurality of vectorsincorporating an influenza virus genome into a population of host cellscapable of supporting replication of influenza virus, culturing thecells and recovering influenza virus. Preferably, the recoveredinfluenza virus has increase ability to replicate in embryonated chickeneggs and/or cells. In another embodiment, the present invention providesinfluenza virus variants with increase ability to replicate inembryonated chicken eggs (referred to herein as “replication enhancedinfluenza variant(s)”) when compared to unmodified influenza viralstrains.

The present invention further includes an improved method of rescue,wherein electroporated animal (e.g., SF Vero) cells (electroporatedwith, e.g., polynucleotides (e.g., plasmids and vectors) of theinvention) are co-cultivated with another cell selected from the groupincluding, but not limited to: chicken embryo kidney (CEK) cells,chicken embryo fibroblasts, primary chick kidney cells, and cellsisolated from the chorioallantoic membrane of embryonated chicken eggs.Other cells useful for this rescue method may include any cell thatsupports replication of influenza virus and meets acceptable standardsfor regulatory approval. Sources of cells include, for example, chickenflocks from SPF chicken flocks. See, Examples 9 and 10 herein.

In one preferred embodiment of the invention, rescue efficiency of virusis improved by at least 10%, or at least 20%, or at least 30%, or atleast 40%, or at least 50%, or at least 60%, or at least 70%, or atleast 80%, or at least 90%, or at least 2-fold, or at least 3-fold, orat least 5-fold.

In another preferred embodiment of the invention, rescue efficiency ofvirus is at least 10%, or at least 20%, or at least 30%, or at least40%, or at least 50%, or at least 60%, or at least 70%, or at least 80%,or at least 90%, or at least 99%. Efficiency can be determined, forexample, by measuring how many eggs injected with the rescued viruses(X) have subsequent detectable HA titers (Y) and dividing Y/X.

The methods described supra as Examples 9 and 10 may be used toelectroporate polynucleotides (e.g., plasmids and vectors) describedherein or, e.g., in U.S. patent application Ser. Nos. 09/396,539,09/844,517, PCT/US0113656, PCT/US00/09021, US03012728; U.S. Pat. No.6,649,372; WO 03/091401, US200201677, which are incorporated byreference herein.

A preferred embodiment of the invention is a method of rescue ofinfluenza virus, wherein animal cells (e.g., Vero cells) areelectroporated with plasmids that encode an influenza RNA polymerase andnucleoprotein and wherein the electroporated animal cells areco-cultivated with another cell type.

A preferred embodiment of the invention is a method of rescue ofinfluenza virus (e.g., influenza A virus, cold adapted viruses, anattenuated viruses), wherein animal cells (e.g., Vero cells) areelectroporated with plasmids that encode an influenza RNA polymerase andnucleoprotein. The number of plasmids electroporated may be, forexample, eight or twelve.

A preferred embodiment of the invention is a method of rescue ofinfluenza virus (e.g., influenza A virus, cold adapted viruses, anattenuated viruses), wherein animal cells (e.g., Vero cells) areelectroporated with plasmids that encode an influenza RNA polymerase andnucleoprotein and wherein the electroporated animal cells areco-cultivated with another cell type (e.g., CEK cells). The number ofplasmids electroporated may be, for example, eight or twelve.

Another preferred embodiment of the invention is a method of rescue ofinfluenza virus, wherein (a) animal cells are electroporated with cellexpression vectors which direct the expression in said cells of genomicor antigenomic vRNA segments, and a nucleoprotein, and an RNA-dependentpolymerase, such that ribonucleoprotein complexes can be formed andviral particles can be assembled (with or without a helper virus); and(b) culturing said cells wherein viral particles are packaged andrescued.

Another preferred embodiment of the invention is a method of rescue ofinfluenza virus, wherein animal cells are electroporated with expressionplasmids (see, e.g., U.S. patent application Ser. Nos. 09/396,539,09/844,517, PCT/US0113656, PCT/US00/09021, US03012728; U.S. Pat. No.6,649,372; WO 03/091401, US200201677, which are incorporated byreference herein), for example, comprising viral cDNA corresponding tothe genomic segment of an influenza virus, wherein the cDNA is insertedbetween an RNA polymerase I (polI) promoter and a regulatory element forthe synthesis of vRNA or cRNA with an exact 3′ end, which are in turninserted between an RNA polymerase II (polII) promoter and apolyadenylation signal, and wherein the cDNA only encodes an influenzaviral protein.

Other embodiments of the invention include influenza viruses produced bythe methods described herein (e.g., Examples 9 and 10) and vaccinescomprising the same.

Other preferred embodiments of the invention include compositions whichgenerates infectious influenza viruses from cloned viral cDNA comprisingSF Vero electroporated with a set of plasmids wherein each plasmidcomprises one viral genomic segment, and wherein viral cDNAcorresponding to the genomic segment is inserted between an RNApolymerase I (polI) promoter and a regulatory element for the synthesisof vRNA or cRNA with an exact 3′ end, which results in expression ofviral mRNA and a corresponding viral protein, wherein the expression ofthe full set of vRNAs or cRNAs and viral proteins results in theassembly of an infectious influenza virus.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS

FIG. 1: Illustration of pAD3000 plasmid (SEQ ID NO: 90).

FIG. 2: Micrographs of infected cells

FIG. 3: Genotyping analysis of rMDV-A and 6:2 H1N1 reassortant virusfrom plasmid transfection.

FIG. 4: Illustration of eight plasmid system for the production ofinfluenza B virus.

FIG. 5: A and B. Characterization of recombinant MDV-B virus by RT-PCR;C and D. Characterization of recombinant B/Yamanashi/166/98 by RT PCR.

FIG. 6: Sequence of pAD3000 in GeneBank format.

FIG. 7: Sequence alignment with MDV-B and eight plasmids (SEQ ID NOS:91-98, respectively)

FIG. 8: RT-PCR products derived from simultaneous amplification of HAand NA segments of influenza B strains.

FIG. 9: Bar graph illustrating relative titers of recombinant andreassortant virus.

FIG. 10: Bar graph illustrating relative titers of reassortant virusunder permissive and restrictive temperatures (temperature sensitivity).

FIG. 11: Graphic representation of reassortant viruses incorporatingspecific mutations (knock-in) correlating with temperature sensitivity(left panel) and relative titers at permissive and restrictivetemperatures (temperature sensitivity) (right panel).

FIG. 12: Determination of ts mutations in a minigenome assay. A. HEp-2cells were transfected with PB1, PB2, PA, NP and pFlu-CAT, incubated at33 or 39° C. for 18 hr and cell extracts were analyzed for CAT reportergene expression. B. CAT MRNA expression by primer extension assay.

FIG. 13: Schematic illustration of triple-gene recombinants with wildtype residues in PA, NP, and M1 proteins.

FIG. 14: Tabulation of growth of single-gene and double-gene recombinantviruses.

FIG. 15: Tabulation of amino acid residue of the nucleoproteincorresponding to non-ts phenotype.

FIG. 16: Schematic diagram of recombinant PR8 mutants. The mutationsintroduced in PB1 and/or PB2 genes are indicated by the filled dots.

FIG. 17: Bar graph illustrating relative titers at 33° C. and 39° C.

FIG. 18: Photomicrographs illustrating plaque morphology of PR8 mutantsat various temperatures. MDCK cells were infected with virus asindicated and incubated at 33, 37 and 39° C. for three days. Virusplaques were visualized by immunostaining and photographed.

FIG. 19: Protein synthesis at permissive and nonpermissive temperatures.MDCK cells were infected with viruses as indicated and incubated at 33or 39° C. overnight. Radiolabeled labeled polypeptides wereelectrophoresed on an SDS-PAGE and autoradiographed. Viral proteins, HA,NP, M1 and NS are indicated.

FIG. 20: A. Line graphs illustrating differential replication of MDV-Aand MDV-B in Per.C6 cells relative to replication in MDCK cells; B. Linegraph illustrating differential replication of MDV-A single genereassortants in Per.C6 cells.

FIG. 21: Bar graphs illustrating differential replication of reassortantviruses. Gray boxes represent wild type amino acid residues. The dottedline represents the shut-off temperature (ts) of 2.0 log₁₀.

FIGS. 22-23: Antigenically compare A/Panama/99 (H3N2) andA/Fujian/411/02-like (H3N2).

FIGS. 24-28: Show molecular basis for antigenic drift from A/Panama/99to A/Fujian/02-like.

FIGS. 29-35: Detail modifications in strains to produce increased virusgrowth in embryonated eggs.

FIG. 36: HA receptor binding affinity of recombinant viruses. 6:2A/Fujian, A/Sendai, A/Wyoming, and A/Fujian variants with V186 and 1226or L183 and A226 changes were adsorbed to MDCK cells at an moi of 1.0 at4° C. or 33° C. for 30 min, and the infected cells were washed threetimes (+) or left untreated (−). After 6 hr of incubation at 33° C., thecells were processed for immunofluorescence staining. The percentage ofinfected cells (mean±SD) indicated in each image was an average of siximages.

FIG. 37: Growth kinetics of recombinant viruses in MDCK cells. MDCKcells were infected at an moi of 1.0 at either 33° C. or 4° C. for 30min, washed 3× with PBS. The infected cells were incubated at 33° C. andat the indicated time intervals the culture supernatants were collectedand the virus amount was determined by plaque assay.

FIG. 38: receptor-binding sites in HA and NA of H3N2 subtypes. Theresidues that were shown to increase the HA receptor-binding affinityand to decrease the NA enzymatic activity in relation to sialic acid(SIA) binding sites are indicated. The HA monomer was modeled using 5HMGand the NA monomer was modeled based on 2BAT using WebLab ViewerLite3.10 (Accelrys, San Diego, Calif.).

DETAILED DESCRIPTION

Many pathogenic influenza virus strains grow only poorly in tissueculture, and strains suitable for production of live attenuated virusvaccines (e.g., temperature sensitive, cold adapted and/or attenuatedinfluenza viruses) have not been successfully grown in cultured cellsfor commercial production. The present invention provides amulti-plasmid transfection system which permits the growth and recoveryof influenza virus strains which are not adapted for growth understandard cell culture conditions. An additional challenge in developingand producing influenza vaccines is that one or more of the circulatinginfluenza strains may not replicate well in embryonic chicken eggs. Thepresent invention identifies several amino acid residues which influencethe activities of the HA and NA proteins and have identified specificamino acid substitutions which can modulate these activities. Thepresent invention discloses that modulation of the HA receptor bindingactivity and/or the NA neuraminidase activity can enhance thereplication of influenza in eggs and/or host cells (e.g., Vero or MDCKcells). Specifically the present invention discloses combinations ofamino acid substitutions in HA and/or NA can enhance viral replicationin eggs and/or cells and demonstrates that these amino acidsubstitutions have no significant impact on antigenicity of theserecombinant influenza viruses. Thus, the present invention provides forthe use of reverse genetic technology to improve the manufacture ofinfluenza virus vaccines.

In a first aspect, the methods of the invention provide vectors andmethods for producing recombinant influenza B virus in cell cultureentirely from cloned viral DNA. In another aspect, the methods of thepresent invention are based in part on the development of tissue cultureconditions which support the growth of virus strains (both A strain andB strain influenza viruses) with desirable properties relative tovaccine production (e.g., attenuated pathogenicity or phenotype, coldadaptation, temperature sensitivity, etc.) in vitro in cultured cells.Influenza viruses are produced by introducing a plurality of vectorsincorporating cloned viral genome segments into host cells, andculturing the cells at a temperature not exceeding 35° C. When vectorsincluding an influenza virus genome are transfected, recombinant virusessuitable as vaccines can be recovered by standard purificationprocedures. Using the vector system and methods of the invention,reassortant viruses incorporating the six internal gene segments of astrain selected for its desirable properties with respect to vaccineproduction, and the immunogenic HA and NA segments from a selected,e.g., pathogenic strain, can be rapidly and efficiently produced intissue culture. Thus, the system and methods described herein are usefulfor the rapid production in cell culture of recombinant and reassortantinfluenza A and B viruses, including viruses suitable for use asvaccines, including live attenuated vaccines, such as vaccines suitablefor intranasal administration.

Typically, a single Master Donor Virus (MDV) strain is selected for eachof the A and B subtypes. In the case of a live attenuated vaccine, theMaster Donor Virus strain is typically chosen for its favorableproperties, e.g., temperature sensitivity, cold adaptation and/orattenuation, relative to vaccine production. For example, exemplaryMaster Donor Strains include such temperature sensitive, attenuated andcold adapted strains of A/Ann Arbor/6/60 and B/Ann Arbor/1/66,respectively. The present invention elucidates the underlying mutationsresulting in the ca, ts and att phenotypes of these virus strains, andprovides methods for producing novel strains of influenza suitable foruse as donor strains in the context of recombinant and reassortantvaccine production.

For example, a selected master donor type A virus (MDV-A), or masterdonor type B virus (MDV-B), is produced from a plurality of cloned viralcDNAs constituting the viral genome. In an exemplary embodiment,recombinant viruses are produced from eight cloned viral cDNAs. Eightviral cDNAs representing either the selected MDV-A or MDV-B sequences ofPB2, PB1, PA, NP, HA, NA, M and NS are cloned into a bi-directionalexpression vector, such as a plasmid (e.g., pAD3000), such that theviral genomic RNA can be transcribed from an RNA polymerase I (pol I)promoter from one strand and the viral mRNAs can be synthesized from anRNA polymerase II (pol II) promoter from the other strand. Optionally,any gene segment can be modified, including the HA segment (e.g., toremove the multi-basic cleavage site).

Infectious recombinant MDV-A or MDV-B virus is then recovered followingtransfection of plasmids bearing the eight viral cDNAs into appropriatehost cells, e.g., Vero cells, co-cultured MDCK/293T or MDCK/COS7 cells.Using the plasmids and methods described herein, the invention isuseful, e.g., for generating 6:2 reassortant influenza vaccines byco-transfection of the 6 internal genes (PB1, PB2, PA, NP, M and NS) ofthe selected virus (e.g., MDV-A, MDV-B) together with the HA and NAderived from different corresponding type (A or B) influenza viruses.For example, the HA segment is favorably selected from a pathogenicallyrelevant H1, H3 or B strain, as is routinely performed for vaccineproduction. Similarly, the HA segment can be selected from a strain withemerging relevance as a pathogenic strain such as an H2 strain (e.g.,H2N2), an H5 strain (e.g., H5N1) or an H7 strain (e.g., H7N7).Reassortants incorporating seven genome segments of the MDV and eitherthe HA or NA gene of a selected strain (7:1 reassortants) can also beproduced. In addition, this system is useful for determining themolecular basis of phenotypic characteristics, e.g., the attenuated(att), cold adapted (ca), and temperature sensitive (ts) phenotypes,relevant to vaccine production.

In another aspect the invention provides methods for manipulating theamino acid residues of HA and/or NA to increase the ability of aninfluenza virus to replicate in embryonated chicken eggs and/or cells.For example, the methods of the present invention can be use to modulateHA receptor binding activity and/or NA neuraminidase activity toincrease the ability of an influenza virus to replicate in eggs and/orcells. Additionally, the invention provides influenza viruses withenhanced ability to replicate in embryonated chicken eggs and/or cells.

DEFINITIONS

Unless defined otherwise, all scientific and technical terms areunderstood to have the same meaning as commonly used in the art to whichthey pertain. For the purpose of the present invention the followingterms are defined below.

The terms “nucleic acid,” “polynucleotide,” “polynucleotide sequence”and “nucleic acid sequence” refer to single-stranded or double-strandeddeoxyribonucleotide or ribonucleotide polymers, or chimeras or analoguesthereof. As used herein, the term optionally includes polymers ofanalogs of naturally occurring nucleotides having the essential natureof natural nucleotides in that they hybridize to single-stranded nucleicacids in a manner similar to naturally occurring nucleotides (e.g.,peptide nucleic acids). Unless otherwise indicated, a particular nucleicacid sequence of this invention encompasses complementary sequences, inaddition to the sequence explicitly indicated.

The term “gene” is used broadly to refer to any nucleic acid associatedwith a biological function. Thus, genes include coding sequences and/orthe regulatory sequences required for their expression. The term “gene”applies to a specific genomic sequence, as well as to a cDNA or an mRNAencoded by that genomic sequence.

Genes also include non-expressed nucleic acid segments that, forexample, form recognition sequences for other proteins. Non-expressedregulatory sequences include “promoters” and “enhancers,” to whichregulatory proteins such as transcription factors bind, resulting intranscription of adjacent or nearby sequences. A “Tissue specific”promoter or enhancer is one which regulates transcription in a specifictissue type or cell type, or types.

The term “vector” refers to the means by which a nucleic can bepropagated and/or transferred between organisms, cells, or cellularcomponents. Vectors include plasmids, viruses, bacteriophage,pro-viruses, phagemids, transposons, and artificial chromosomes, and thelike, that replicate autonomously or can integrate into a chromosome ofa host cell. A vector can also be a naked RNA polynucleotide, a nakedDNA polynucleotide, a polynucleotide composed of both DNA and RNA withinthe same strand, a poly-lysine-conjugated DNA or RNA, apeptide-conjugated DNA or RNA, a liposome-conjugated DNA, or the like,that are not autonomously replicating. Most commonly, the vectors of thepresent invention are plasmids.

An “expression vector” is a vector, such as a plasmid, which is capableof promoting expression, as well as replication of a nucleic acidincorporated therein. Typically, the nucleic acid to be expressed is“operably linked” to a promoter and/or enhancer, and is subject totranscription regulatory control by the promoter and/or enhancer.

A “bi-directional expression vector” is typically characterized by twoalternative promoters oriented in the opposite direction relative to anucleic acid situated between the two promoters, such that expressioncan be initiated in both orientations resulting in, e.g., transcriptionof both plus (+) or sense strand, and negative (−) or antisense strandRNAs. Alternatively, the bi-directional expression vector can be anambisense vector, in which the viral mRNA and viral genomic RNA (as acRNA) are expressed from the same strand.

In the context of the invention, the term “isolated” refers to abiological material, such as a nucleic acid or a protein, which issubstantially free from components that normally accompany or interactwith it in its naturally occurring environment. The isolated materialoptionally comprises material not found with the material in its naturalenvironment, e.g., a cell. For example, if the material is in itsnatural environment, such as a cell, the material has been placed at alocation in the cell (e.g., genome or genetic element) not native to amaterial found in that environment. For example, a naturally occurringnucleic acid (e.g., a coding sequence, a promoter, an enhancer, etc.)becomes isolated if it is introduced by non-naturally occurring means toa locus of the genome (e.g., a vector, such as a plasmid or virusvector, or amplicon) not native to that nucleic acid. Such nucleic acidsare also referred to as “heterologous” nucleic acids.

The term “recombinant” indicates that the material (e.g., a nucleic acidor protein) has been artificially or synthetically (non-naturally)altered by human intervention. The alteration can be performed on thematerial within, or removed from, its natural environment or state.Specifically, when referring to a virus, e.g., an influenza virus, thevirus is recombinant when it is produced by the expression of arecombinant nucleic acid.

The term “reassortant,” when referring to a virus, indicates that thevirus includes genetic and/or polypeptide components derived from morethan one parental viral strain or source. For example, a 7:1 reassortantincludes 7 viral genomic segments (or gene segments) derived from afirst parental virus, and a single complementary viral genomic segment,e.g., encoding hemagglutinin or neuraminidase, from a second parentalvirus. A 6:2 reassortant includes 6 genomic segments, most commonly the6 internal genes from a first parental virus, and two complementarysegments, e.g., hemagglutinin and neuraminidase, from a differentparental virus.

The term “introduced” when referring to a heterologous or isolatednucleic acid refers to the incorporation of a nucleic acid into aeukaryotic or prokaryotic cell where the nucleic acid can beincorporated into the genome of the cell (e.g., chromosome, plasmid,plastid or mitochondrial DNA), converted into an autonomous replicon, ortransiently expressed (e.g., transfected mRNA). The term includes suchmethods as “infection,” “transfection,” “transformation” and“transduction.” In the context of the invention a variety of methods canbe employed to introduce nucleic acids into prokaryotic cells, includingelectroporation, Calcium phosphate precipitation, lipid mediatedtransfection (lipofection), etc.

The term “host cell” means a cell which contains a heterologous nucleicacid, such as a vector, and supports the replication and/or expressionof the nucleic acid, and optionally production of one or more encodedproducts including a polypeptide and/or a virus. Host cells can beprokaryotic cells such as E. coli, or eukaryotic cells such as yeast,insect, amphibian, avian or mammalian cells, including human cells.Exemplary host cells in the context of the invention include Vero(African green monkey kidney) cells, Per.C6 cells (human embryonicretinal cells), BHK (baby hamster kidney) cells, primary chick kidney(PCK) cells, Madin-Darby Canine Kidney (MDCK) cells, Madin-Darby BovineKidney (MDBK) cells, 293 cells (e.g., 293T cells), and COS cells (e.g.,COS1, COS7 cells). The term host cell encompasses combinations ormixtures of cells including, e.g., mixed cultures of different celltypes or cell lines.

The terms “temperature sensitive,” “cold adapted” and “attenuated” arewell known in the art. For example, the term “temperature sensitive”(“ts”) indicates that the virus exhibits a 100 fold or greater reductionin titer at 39° C. relative to 33° C. for influenza A strains, and thatthe virus exhibits a 100 fold or greater reduction in titer at 37° C.relative to 33° C. for influenza B strains. For example, the term “coldadapted” (“ca”) indicates that the virus exhibits growth at 25° C.within 100 fold of its growth at 33° C. For example, the term“attenuated” (“att”) indicates that the virus replicates in the upperairways of ferrets but is not detectable in lung tissues, and does notcause influenza-like illness in the animal. It will be understood thatviruses with intermediate phenotypes, i.e., viruses exhibiting titerreductions less than 100 fold at 39° C. (for A strain viruses) or 37° C.(for B strain viruses), exhibiting growth at 25° C. that is more than100 fold than its growth at 33° C. (e.g., within 200 fold, 500 fold,1000 fold, 10,000 fold less), and/or exhibit reduced growth in the lungsrelative to growth in the upper airways of ferrets (i.e., partiallyattenuated) and/or reduced influenza like illness in the animal, whichpossess one or more of the amino acid substitutions described herein arealso useful viruses encompassed by the invention. Growth indicates viralquantity as indicated by titer, plaque size or morphology, particledensity or other measures known to those of skill in the art.

The expression “artificially engineered” is used herein to indicate thatthe virus, viral nucleic acid or virally encoded product, e.g., apolypeptide, a vaccine, comprises at least one mutation introduced byrecombinant methods, e.g., site directed mutagenesis, PCR mutagenesis,etc. The expression “artificially engineered” when referring to a virus(or viral component or product) comprising one or more nucleotidemutations and/or amino acid substitutions indicates that the viralgenome or genome segment encoding the virus (or viral component orproduct) is not derived from naturally occurring sources, such as anaturally occurring or previously existing laboratory strain of virusproduced by non-recombinant methods (such as progressive passage at 25°C.), e.g., a wild type or cold adapted A/Ann Arbor/6/60 or B/AnnArbor/1/66strain.

Influenza Virus

The genome of Influenza viruses is composed of eight segments of linear(−) strand ribonucleic acid (RNA), encoding the immunogenichemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA) proteins, and six internalcore polypeptides: the nucleocapsid nucleoprotein (NP); matrix proteins(M); non-structural proteins (NS); and 3 RNA polymerase (PA, PB1, PB2)proteins. During replication, the genomic viral RNA is transcribed into(+) strand messenger RNA and (−) strand genomic cRNA in the nucleus ofthe host cell. Each of the eight genomic segments is packaged intoribonucleoprotein complexes that contain, in addition to the RNA, NP anda polymerase complex (PB1, PB2, and PA).

In the present invention, viral genomic RNA corresponding to each of theeight segments is inserted into a recombinant vector for manipulationand production of influenza viruses. A variety of vectors, includingviral vectors, plasmids, cosmids, phage, and artificial chromosomes, canbe employed in the context of the invention. Typically, for ease ofmanipulation, the viral genomic segments are inserted into a plasmidvector, providing one or more origins of replication functional inbacterial and eukaryotic cells, and, optionally, a marker convenient forscreening or selecting cells incorporating the plasmid sequence. Anexemplary vector, plasmid pAD3000 is illustrated in FIG. 1.

Most commonly, the plasmid vectors of the invention are bi-directionalexpression vectors capable of initiating transcription of the insertedviral genomic segment in either direction, that is, giving rise to both(+) strand and (−) strand viral RNA molecules. To effect bi-directionaltranscription, each of the viral genomic segments is inserted into avector having at least two independent promoters, such that copies ofviral genomic RNA are transcribed by a first RNA polymerase promoter(e.g., Pol I), from one strand, and viral mRNAs are synthesized from asecond RNA polymerase promoter (e.g., Pol II). Accordingly, the twopromoters are arranged in opposite orientations flanking at least onecloning site (i.e., a restriction enzyme recognition sequence)preferably a unique cloning site, suitable for insertion of viralgenomic RNA segments. Alternatively, an “ambisense” vector can beemployed in which the (+) strand mRNA and the (−) strand viral RNA (as acRNA) are transcribed from the same strand of the vector.

Expression Vectors

The influenza virus genome segment to be expressed is operably linked toan appropriate transcription control sequence (promoter) to direct mRNAsynthesis. A variety of promoters are suitable for use in expressionvectors for regulating transcription of influenza virus genome segments.In certain embodiments, e.g., wherein the vector is the plasmid pAD3000,the cytomegalovirus (CMV) DNA dependent RNA Polymerase II (Pol II)promoter is utilized. If desired, e.g., for regulating conditionalexpression, other promoters can be substituted which induce RNAtranscription under the specified conditions, or in the specifiedtissues or cells. Numerous viral and mammalian, e.g., human promotersare available, or can be isolated according to the specific applicationcontemplated. For example, alternative promoters obtained from thegenomes of animal and human viruses include such promoters as theadenovirus (such as Adenovirus 2), papilloma virus, hepatitis-B virus,polyoma virus, and Simian Virus 40 (SV40), and various retroviralpromoters. Mammalian promoters include, among many others, the actinpromoter, immunoglobulin promoters, heat-shock promoters, and the like.In addition, bacteriophage promoters can be employed in conjunction withthe cognate RNA polymerase, e.g., the T7 promoter.

Transcription is optionally increased by including an enhancer sequence.Enhancers are typically short, e.g., 10-500 bp, cis-acting DNA elementsthat act in concert with a promoter to increase transcription. Manyenhancer sequences have been isolated from mammalian genes (hemoglobin,elastase, albumin, alpha.-fetoprotein, and insulin), and eukaryotic cellviruses. The enhancer can be spliced into the vector at a position 5′ or3′ to the heterologous coding sequence, but is typically inserted at asite 5′ to the promoter. Typically, the promoter, and if desired,additional transcription enhancing sequences are chosen to optimizeexpression in the host cell type into which the heterologous DNA is tobe introduced (Scharf et al. (1994) Heat stress promoters andtranscription factors Results Probl Cell Differ 20:125-62; Kriegler etal. (1990) Assembly of enhancers, promoters, and splice signals tocontrol expression of transferred genes Methods in Enzymol 185: 512-27).Optionally, the amplicon can also contain a ribosome binding site or aninternal ribosome entry site (IRES) for translation initiation.

The vectors of the invention also favorably include sequences necessaryfor the termination of transcription and for stabilizing the mRNA, suchas a polyadenylation site or a terminator sequence. Such sequences arecommonly available from the 5′ and, occasionally 3′, untranslatedregions of eukaryotic or viral DNAs or cDNAs. In one embodiment, e.g.,involving the plasmid pAD3000, the SV40 polyadenylation sequencesprovide a polyadenylation signal.

In addition, as described above, the expression vectors optionallyinclude one or more selectable marker genes to provide a phenotypictrait for selection of transformed host cells, in addition to genespreviously listed, markers such as dihydrofolate reductase or neomycinresistance are suitable for selection in eukaryotic cell culture.

The vector containing the appropriate DNA sequence as described above,as well as an appropriate promoter or control sequence, can be employedto transform a host cell permitting expression of the protein. While thevectors of the invention can be replicated in bacterial cells, mostfrequently it will be desirable to introduce them into mammalian cells,e.g., Vero cells, BHK cells, MDCK cell, 293 cells, COS cells, for thepurpose of expression.

Additional Expression Elements

Most commonly, the genome segment encoding the influenza virus proteinincludes any additional sequences necessary for its expression,including translation into a functional viral protein. In othersituations, a minigene, or other artificial construct encoding the viralproteins, e.g., an HA or NA protein, can be employed. In this case, itis often desirable to include specific initiation signals which aid inthe efficient translation of the heterologous coding sequence. Thesesignals can include, e.g., the ATG initiation codon and adjacentsequences. To insure translation of the entire insert, the initiationcodon is inserted in the correct reading frame relative to the viralprotein. Exogenous transcriptional elements and initiation codons can beof various origins, both natural and synthetic. The efficiency ofexpression can be enhanced by the inclusion of enhancers appropriate tothe cell system in use.

If desired, polynucleotide sequences encoding additional expressedelements, such as signal sequences, secretion or localization sequences,and the like can be incorporated into the vector, usually, in-frame withthe polynucleotide sequence of interest, e.g., to target polypeptideexpression to a desired cellular compartment, membrane, or organelle, orinto the cell culture media. Such sequences are known to those of skill,and include secretion leader peptides, organelle targeting sequences(e.g., nuclear localization sequences, ER retention signals,mitochondrial transit sequences), membrane localization/anchor sequences(e.g., stop transfer sequences, GPI anchor sequences), and the like.

Influenza Virus Vaccine

Historically, influenza virus vaccines have been produced in embryonatedhens' eggs using strains of virus selected based on empiricalpredictions of relevant strains. More recently, reassortant viruses havebeen produced that incorporate selected hemagglutinin and neuraminidaseantigens in the context of an approved attenuated, temperature sensitivemaster strain. Following culture of the virus through multiple passagesin hens' eggs, influenza viruses are recovered and, optionally,inactivated, e.g., using formaldehyde and/or β-propiolactone. However,production of influenza vaccine in this manner has several significantdrawbacks. Contaminants remaining from the hens' eggs are highlyantigenic, pyrogenic, and frequently result in significant side effectsupon administration. More importantly, strains designated for productionmust be selected and distributed, typically months in advance of thenext flu season to allow time for production and inactivation ofinfluenza vaccine. Attempts at producing recombinant and reassortantvaccines in cell culture have been hampered by the inability of any ofthe strains approved for vaccine production to grow efficiently understandard cell culture conditions.

The present invention provides a vector system, and methods forproducing recombinant and reassortant viruses in culture which make itpossible to rapidly produce vaccines corresponding to one or manyselected antigenic strains of virus. In particular, conditions andstrains are provided that result in efficient production of viruses froma multi plasmid system in cell culture. Optionally, if desired, theviruses can be further amplified in Hens' eggs.

For example, it has not been possible to grow the influenza B masterstrain B/Ann Arbor/1/66 under standard cell culture conditions, e.g., at37° C. In the methods of the present invention, multiple plasmids, eachincorporating a segment of an influenza virus genome are introduced intosuitable cells, and maintained in culture at a temperature less than orequal to 35° C. Typically, the cultures are maintained at between about32° C. and 35° C., preferably between about 32° C. and about 34° C.,e.g., at about 33° C.

Typically, the cultures are maintained in a system, such as a cellculture incubator, under controlled humidity and Co₂, at constanttemperature using a temperature regulator, such as a thermostat toinsure that the temperature does not exceed 35° C.

Reassortant influenza viruses can be readily obtained by introducing asubset of vectors corresponding to genomic segments of a masterinfluenza virus, in combination with complementary segments derived fromstrains of interest (e.g., antigenic variants of interest). Typically,the master strains are selected on the basis of desirable propertiesrelevant to vaccine administration. For example, for vaccine production,e.g., for production of a live attenuated vaccine, the master donorvirus strain may be selected for an attenuated phenotype, coldadaptation and/or temperature sensitivity. In this context, Influenza Astrain ca A/Ann Arbor/6/60; Influenza B strain ca B/Ann Arbor/1/66; oranother strain selected for its desirable phenotypic properties, e.g.,an attenuated, cold adapted, and/or temperature sensitive strain, suchas an artificially engineered influenza A strain as described in Example4; or an artificially engineered influenza B strain incorporating one ormore of the amino acid substitutions specified in Table 17 are favorablyselected as master donor strains.

In one embodiment, plasmids incorporating the six internal genes of theinfluenza master virus strain, (i.e., PB1, PB2, PA, NP, NB, M1, BM2, NS1and NS2) are transfected into suitable host cells in combination withhemagglutinin and neuraminidase segments from an antigenically desirablestrain, e.g., a strain predicted to cause significant local or globalinfluenza infection. Following replication of the reassortant virus incell culture at appropriate temperatures for efficient recovery, e.g.,equal to or less than 35° C., such as between about 32° C. and 35° C.,for example between about 32° C. and about 34° C., or at about 33° C.,reassortant viruses is recovered. Optionally, the recovered virus can beinactivated using a denaturing agent such as formaldehyde orβ-propiolactone.

Attenuated, Temperature Sensitive and Cold Adapted Influenza VirusVaccines

In one aspect, the present invention is based on the determination ofthe mutations underlying the ts phenotype in preferred Master DonorStrains of virus. To determine the functional importance of singlenucleotide changes in the MDV strain genome, reassortant viruses derivedfrom highly related strains within the A/AA/6/60 lineage were evaluatedfor temperature sensitivity. The isogenic nature of the two parentalstrains enables the evaluation of single nucleotide changes on the tsphenotype. Accordingly, the genetic basis for the ts phenotype of MDV-Ais mapped at the nucleotide level to specific amino acid residues withinPB1, PB2, and NP.

Previous attempts to map the genetic basis of the ts phenotype of caA/AA/6/60 utilized classical coinfection/reassortant techniques tocreate single and multiple gene reassortants between A/AA/6/60 and anunrelated wt strain. These studies suggested that both PB2, and PB1contributed to the ts phenotype (Kendal et al. (1978) Biochemicalcharacteristics of recombinant viruses derived at sub-optimaltemperatures: evidence that ts lesions are present in RNA segments 1 and3, and that RNA 1 codes for the virion transcriptase enzyme, p. 734-743.In B. W. J. Mahy, and R. D. Barry (ed.) Negative Strand Viruses,Academic Press; Kendal et al. (1977) Comparative studies of wild-typeand cold mutant (temperature sensitive) influenza viruses: genealogy ofthe matrix (M) and the non-structural (NS) proteins in recombinantcold-adapted H3N2 viruses J Gen Virol 37:145-159; Kendal et al. (1979)Comparative studies of wild-type and cold-mutant (temperature sensitive)influenza viruses. independent segregation of temperature-sensitivity ofvirus replication from temperature-sensitivity of virion transcriptaseactivity during recombination of mutant A/Ann Arbor/6/60 with wild-typeH3N2 strains J Gen Virol 44:443-4560; Snyder et al. (1988) Four viralgenes independently contribute to attenuation of live influenza A/AnnArbor/6/60 (H2N2) cold-adapted reassortant virus vaccines J Virol62:488-95). Interpretation of these studies, however, was confounded byconstellation effects, which were caused by mixing gene segments fromtwo divergent influenza A strains. Weakened interactions could haveoccurred through changes between the A/AA/6/60 and wt gene segmentsother than those specifically involved in expression of the ts phenotypefrom the A/AA/6/60 background. Constellation effects were also shown toconfound the interpretation of association of the M gene segment withthe att phenotype (Subbarao et al. (1992) The attenuation phenotypeconferred by the M gene of the influenza A/Ann Arbor/6/60 cold-adaptedvirus (H2N2) on the A/Korea/82 (H3N2) reassortant virus results from agene constellation effect Virus Res 25:37-50).

In the present invention, mutations resulting in amino acidsubstitutions at positions PB1³⁹¹, PB1⁵⁸¹, PB1⁶⁶¹, PB2²⁶⁵ and NP³⁴ areidentified as functionally important in conferring the temperaturesensitive phenotype on the MDV-A strain virus. As will be understood bythose of skill in the art, mutations in nucleotides at positionsPB1¹¹⁹⁵, PB1¹⁷⁶⁶, PB1²⁰⁰⁵, PB2⁸²¹ and NP¹⁴⁶ designate amino acidsubstitutions at PB1³⁹¹, PB1⁵⁸¹, PB1⁶⁶¹, PB2²⁶⁵ and NP³⁴, respectively.Thus, any nucleotide substitutions resulting in substituted amino acidsat these positions are a feature of the invention. Exemplary mutationsPB1³⁹¹ (K391E), PB1⁵⁸¹ (E581G), PB1⁶⁶¹ (A661T), PB2²⁶⁵ (N265S) and NP³⁴(D34G), singly, and more preferably in combination, result in atemperature sensitive phenotype. Simultaneous reversion of thesemutations to wild type abolishes the ts phenotype, while introduction ofthese mutations onto a wild-type background results in virus with a tsphenotype. Consistent with the stability of these phenotypes duringpassage of the virus, no single change can individually revert thetemperature sensitivity profile of the resulting virus to that ofwild-type. Rather, these changes appear to act in concert with oneanother to fully express the ts phenotype. This discovery permits theengineering of additional strains of temperature sensitive influenza Avirus suitable for master donor viruses for the production of liveattenuated influenza vaccines.

Similarly, substitutions of individual amino acids in a Master DonorVirus-B strain are correlated with the ts phenotype as illustrated inTable 17. Thus, the methods presented herein are adapted to producingnovel influenza B strains with temperature sensitive, and optionallyattenuated and/or cold adapted phenotypes by introducing one or morespecified mutations into an influenza B genome. For example, one or moremutations resulting in an amino acid substitution at a position selectedfrom among PB2⁶³⁰; PA⁴³¹; PA⁴⁹⁷; N⁵⁵; NP¹¹⁴; NP⁴¹⁰; NP⁵⁰⁹; M1¹⁵⁹ andM1¹⁸³ are introduced into an influenza B strain genome to produce atemperature sensitive influenza B virus. Exemplary amino acidsubstitutions include the following: PB2⁶³⁰ (S630R); PA⁴³¹ (V431M);PA⁴⁹⁷ (Y497H); NP⁵⁵ (T55A); NP¹¹⁴ (V114A); NP⁴¹⁰ (P410H); NP⁵⁰⁹ (A509T);M1¹⁵⁹ (H159Q) and M1¹⁸³ (M183V).

Influenza viruses incorporating the mutations of the invention are afeature of the invention regardless of the method in which they areproduced. That is, the invention encompasses influenza strains includingthe mutations of the invention, e.g., any influenza A virus with anamino acid substitution relative to wild type at one or more positionsselected from among: PB1³⁹¹, PB1⁵⁸¹, PB1⁶⁶¹, PB2²⁶⁵ and NP³⁴ or anyinfluenza B virus with an amino acid substitution relative to wild typeat one or more positions selected from among: PB2⁶³⁰; PA⁴³¹; PA⁴⁹⁷;NP⁵⁵; NP¹¹⁴; NP⁴¹⁰; NP509; M1¹⁵⁹ and M1¹⁸³, with the proviso that thestrains ca A/Ann Arbor/6/60 and B/Ann Arbor/1/66 are not considered afeature of the present invention. In certain preferred embodiments, theinfluenza A viruses include a plurality of mutations (e.g., two, orthree, or four, or five, or more mutations) selected from among PB1³⁹¹(K391E), PB1⁵⁸¹ (E581G), PB1⁶⁶¹ (A661T), PB2²⁶⁵ (N265S) and NP³⁴ (D34G);and the influenza B viruses include a plurality of mutations selectedfrom among PB2⁶³⁰ (S630R); PA⁴³¹ (V431M); PA⁴⁹⁷ (Y497H); NP⁵⁵ (T55A);NP¹¹⁴ (V114A); NP⁴¹⁰ (P410H); NP⁵⁰⁹ (A509T); M1¹⁵⁹ (H159Q) and M1¹⁸³(M183V), respectively. For example, in addition to providing viruseswith desired phenotypes relevant for vaccine production, viruses with asubset of mutations, e.g., 1, or 2, or 3, or 4, or 5 selected mutations,are useful in elucidating the contribution of additional mutations tothe phenotype of the virus. In certain embodiments, the influenzaviruses include at least one additional non-wild type nucleotide (e.g.,possibly resulting in an additional amino acid substitution), whichoptionally refines the desired phenotype or confers a further desirablephenotypic attribute.

Enhanced Viral Replication

The present invention also provides a method of introducing of at leastone amino acid residue substitution in HA and/or NA to increase theability of an influenza virus to replicate in embryonated chicken eggsand/or host cells. The invention further provides influenza virusvariants with increased ability to replicate in embryonated chicken eggsand/or host cells (referred to herein as “replication enhancedvariants”) when compared to HA and/or NA unsubstituted influenza virus.It is specifically contemplated that the method of the invention can beutilized to enhance the replication of an influenza virus in a host celland that replication enhanced variants may have enhanced replication inchicken eggs and/or host cells. Suitable host cells for the replicationof influenza virus include, e.g., Vero cells, Per.C6 cells, BHK cells,MDCK cells, 293 cells and COS cells, including 293T cells, COS7 cells.

In one embodiment, the method of the invention introduces at least oneamino acid substitution into HA and/or NA which will enhance the abilityof an influenza virus to replicate in eggs and/or host cells by at least10%, or by at least 20%, or by at least 30%, or by at least 40%, or byat least 50%, or by at least 60%, or by at least 70%, or by at least80%, or by at least 90%, or by at least 100%, or by at least 200%, or byat least 300%, or by at least 400%, or by at least 500% when compared tothe unmodified influenza virus. It is specifically contemplated thatamino acid substitutions may be made in both HA and NA. Preferably, themethod of the invention does not significantly alter the antigenicity ofthe substituted influenza virus when compared to the unsubstitutedvirus. In a specific embodiment, the method of the invention reduces theantigenicity of the substituted influenza virus when compared to theunsubstituted virus by less then 10%, or by less then 20%, or by lessthen 30%, or by less then 40%, or by less then 50%, or by less then 60%,or by less then 70%, or by less then 80%, or by less then 90%, or byless then 100%. Methods to determine viral antigenicity are well knownin the art (also see, “Example 11” supra).

In one embodiment, the method of the invention further incorporates anattenuated influenza virus, a cold adapted influenza virus, atemperature sensitive influenza virus, or a virus with any combinationof these desirable properties. Preferably, the viruses incorporated bythe method of the invention include but are not limited to, influenzaB/Ann Arbor/1/66 strain virus, influenza A/Ann Arbor/6/60 strain virus.In another embodiment, the method of the invention introduces vectorsincluding the six internal genes of a viral strain selected for itsfavorable properties regarding vaccine production, in combination withthe genome segments encoding the desired manipulated HA and NA surfaceantigens to produce influenza viruses with enhanced ability to replicatein embryonated chicken eggs and/or host cells (see, supra and “Example11”). In another embodiment, the method of the invention furtherincorporates a non-attenuated influenza virus.

In one embodiment, the method of the invention introduces at least oneamino acid substitution which modulates the receptor binding activity ofHA. Receptor binding activity of HA includes but is not limited to thebinding of HA to sialic acid residues (e.g., 2,6-linkedsialyl-galactosyl moieties [Siaα(2,6)Gal] and 2,3-linkedsialyl-galactosyl moieties [Siaα(2,3)Gal]) present on the cell surfaceglycoproteins or glycolipids. One method to assay HA binding ispresented in “Example 11” (infra), other methods are well known in theart. In another embodiment, the method of the invention introduces aminoacid substitutions which modulate the receptor binding specificity of HAfor [Siaα(2,6)Gal] and/or[Siaα(2,3)Gal] moieties. Preferably, the methodwill enhance the binding of HA to [Siaα(2,3)Gal] moieties.

In a one embodiment, the method of the invention introduces at least oneamino acid substitution which enhances the receptor binding activity ofHA. Preferably, the receptor binding activity is increased by at least10%, or by at least 20%, or by at least 30%, or by at least 40%, or byat least 50%, or by at least 60%, or by at least 70%, or by at least80%, or by at least 90%, or by at least 100%, or by at least 200%.

In a another embodiment, the method of the invention introduces at leastone amino acid substitution which reduces the receptor binding activityof HA. Preferably, the receptor binding activity is reduced by at least10%, or by at least 20%, or by at least 30%, or by at least 40%, or byat least 50%, or by at least 60%, or by at least 70%, or by at least80%, or by at least 90%, or by at least 100%, or by at least 200%.

In a preferred embodiment, the method introduces at least one amino acidsubstitution in HA at positions 183, 186 and/or 226. Preferably, aminoacid substitutions are made at positions 183 and 226 or at positions 186and 226. Most preferably, amino acid substitutions are made such thatposition 183 is a leucine and position 226 is an alanine or such thatposition 186 is a valine and position 226 is an isoleucine.

In one embodiment, the method of the invention introduces at least oneamino acid substitution which modulate the neuraminidase activity of NA.Neuraminidase activity of NA includes but is not limited to, thehydrolysis of substrates which contain alpha-ketosidically linkedN-acetylneuraminic acid (Neu5Ac). Methods to determine the neuraminidaseactivity are well known in the art (see also, “Example 11” infra).

In a one embodiment, the method of the invention introduces at least oneamino acid substitution which enhances the neuraminidase activity of NA.Preferably, the receptor binding activity is increased by at least 10%,or by at least 20%, or by at least 30%, or by at least 40%, or by atleast 50%, or by at least 60%, or by at least 70%, or by at least 80%,or by at least 90%, or by at least 100%, or by at least 200%.

In a another embodiment, the method of the invention introduces at leastone amino acid substitution which reduces the neuraminidase activity ofNA. Preferably, the neuraminidase activity is reduced by at least 10%,or by at least 20%, or by at least 30%, or by at least 40%, or by atleast 50%, or by at least 60%, or by at least 70%, or by at least 80%,or by at least 90%, or by at least 100%, or by at least 200%.

In a preferred embodiment, the method introduces at least one amino acidsubstitution in NA at positions 119 and/or 136. Preferably, amino acidsubstitutions are made such that position 119 is a is a glutamate andposition 136 is a glutamine.

One skilled in the art would appreciate that in some cases the HA and/orNA protein will already have the preferred amino acid residues at one ormore of the aforementioned positions. In this situation, substitution(s)will only be introduced at the remaining non-matching positions.

It is specifically contemplated that conservative amino acidsubstitutions may be made for said amino acid substitutions at positions183, 186 and/or 226 of HA and positions 119 and/or 136 of NA, describedsupra.

It is well known in the art that “conservative amino acid substitution”refers to amino acid substitutions that substitutefunctionally-equivalent amino acids. Conservative amino acid changesresult in silent changes in the amino acid sequence of the resultingpeptide. For example, one or more amino acids of a similar polarity actas functional equivalents and result in a silent alteration within theamino acid sequence of the peptide. Substitutions that are chargeneutral and which replace a residue with a smaller residue may also beconsidered “conservative substitutions” even if the residues are indifferent groups (e.g., replacement of phenylalanine with the smallerisoleucine). Families of amino acid residues having similar side chainshave been defined in the art. Families of conservative amino acidsubstitutions include but are not limited to, non-polar (e.g., Trp, Phe,Met, Leu, Ile, Val, Ala, Pro), uncharged polar (e.g., Gly, Ser, Thr,Asn, Gln, Tyr, Cys), acidic/negatively charged (e.g., Asp, Glu),basic/positively charged (e.g., Arg, Lys, His), Beta-branched (e.g.,Thr, Val, Ile), residues that influence chain orientation (e.g., Gly,Pro) and aromatic (e.g., Trp, Tyr, Phe, His). The term “conservativeamino acid substitution” also refers to the use of amino acid analogs orvariants. Guidance concerning how to make phenotypically silent aminoacid substitutions is provided in Bowie et al., “Deciphering the Messagein Protein Sequences: Tolerance to Amino Acid Substitutions,” (1990,Science 247:1306-10).

In one embodiment, the present invention provides modified influenzaviruses, referred to herein as “replication enhanced influenzavariant(s), which incorporate at least one amino acid substitution in HAand/or NA which enhances their replication in embryonated chicken eggsand/or host cells when compared to the unmodified influenza virus.Preferably, the ability of an replication enhanced influenza variant toreplicate in eggs and/or host cells has been enhanced by at least 10%,or by at least 20%, or by at least 30%, or by at least 40%, or by atleast 50%, or by at least 60%, or by at least 70%, or by at least 80%,or by at least 90%, or by at least 100%, or by at least 200%, or by atleast 300%, or by at least 400%, or by at least 500% when compared tothe unmodified influenza virus.

In certain embodiment, a replication enhanced influenza variant furtherincorporates an attenuated influenza virus, a cold adapted influenzavirus, a temperature sensitive influenza virus, or a virus with anycombination of these desirable properties. Preferably, the virusincorporated into a replication enhanced influenza variant includes butis not limited to, influenza B/Ann Arbor/1/66 strain virus, influenzaA/Ann Arbor/6/60 strain virus. It is specifically contemplated that areplication enhanced influenza variant is produced by introducingvectors including the six internal genes of a viral strain selected forits favorable properties regarding vaccine production, in combinationwith the genome segments encoding the desired substituted HA and NAsurface antigens (see, supra and “Example 11”).

In one embodiment, a replication enhanced influenza variant incorporatesat least one amino acid substitution in HA which modulates the receptorbinding activity of HA (see supra). Preferably, the method will enhancethe binding of HA to [Siaα(2,3)Gal] moieties.

In a specific embodiment, a replication enhanced influenza variantincorporates at least one amino acid substitution which enhances thereceptor binding activity of HA. Preferably, the receptor bindingactivity is increased by at least 10%, or by at least 20%, or by atleast 30%, or by at least 40%, or by at least 50%, or by at least 60%,or by at least 70%, or by at least 80%, or by at least 90%, or by atleast 100%, or by at least 200%. It is specifically contemplated that anegg enhance influenza variant does not have significantly altered viralantigenicity when compared to the unsubstituted influenza virus. In aspecific embodiment, a replication enhanced influenza variant has anantigenicity that is reduced by less then 10%, or by less then 20%, orby less then 30%, or by less then 40%, or by less then 50%, or by lessthen 60%, or by less then 70%, or by less then 80%, or by less then 90%,or by less then 100% when compared to the unsubstituted virus. Methodsto determine viral antigenicity are well known in the art (also see,“Example 11” supra).

In another embodiment, a replication enhanced influenza variantincorporates incorporate at least one amino acid substitution whichreduces the receptor binding activity of HA. Preferably, the receptorbinding activity is reduced by at least 10%, or by at least 20%, or byat least 30%, or by at least 40%, or by at least 50%, or by at least60%, or by at least 70%, or by at least 80%, or by at least 90%, or byat least 100%, or by at least 200%.

In a preferred embodiment, a replication enhanced influenza variantincorporates incorporate at least one amino acid substitution in HA atpositions 183, 186 and/or 226. Preferably, amino acid substitutions arepresent at positions 183 and 226 or at positions 186 and 226. Mostpreferably, amino acid substitutions are present such that position 183is a leucine and position 226 is an alanine or such that position 186 isa valine and position 226 is an isoleucine.

In one embodiment, a replication enhanced influenza variant incorporatesat least one amino acid substitution which modulates the neuraminidaseactivity of NA (see supra).

In a one embodiment, a replication enhanced influenza variantincorporates at least one amino acid substitution which enhances theneuraminidase activity of NA. Preferably, the receptor binding activityis increased by at least 10%, or by at least 20%, or by at least 30%, orby at least 40%, or by at least 50%, or by at least 60%, or by at least70%, or by at least 80%, or by at least 90%, or by at least 100%, or byat least 200%.

In a another embodiment, a replication enhanced influenza variantincorporates at least one amino acid substitution which reduces theneuraminidase activity of NA. Preferably, the neuraminidase activity isreduced by at least 10%, or by at least 20%, or by at least 30%, or byat least 40%, or by at least 50%, or by at least 60%, or by at least70%, or by at least 80%, or by at least 90%, or by at least 100%, or byat least 200%.

In a preferred embodiment, a replication enhanced influenza variantincorporates at least one amino acid substitution in NA at positions 119and/or 136. Preferably, amino acid substitutions are made such thatposition 119 is a is a glutamate and position 136 is a glutamine.

Cell Culture

Typically, propagation of the virus is accomplished in the mediacompositions in which the host cell is commonly cultured. Suitable hostcells for the replication of influenza virus include, e.g., Vero cells,Per.C6 cells, BHK cells, MDCK cells, 293 cells and COS cells, including293T cells, COS7 cells. Commonly, co-cultures including two of the abovecell lines, e.g., MDCK cells and either 293T or COS cells are employedat a ratio, e.g., of 1:1, to improve replication efficiency. Typically,cells are cultured in a standard commercial culture medium, such asDulbecco's modified Eagle's medium supplemented with serum (e.g., 10%fetal bovine serum), or in serum free medium, under controlled humidityand CO₂ concentration suitable for maintaining neutral buffered pH(e.g., at pH between 7.0 and 7.2). Optionally, the medium containsantibiotics to prevent bacterial growth, e.g., penicillin, streptomycin,etc., and/or additional nutrients, such as L-glutamine, sodium pyruvate,non-essential amino acids, additional supplements to promote favorablegrowth characteristics, e.g., trypsin, β-mercaptoethanol, and the like.

Procedures for maintaining mammalian cells in culture have beenextensively reported, and are known to those of skill in the art.General protocols are provided, e.g., in Freshney (1983) Culture ofAnimal Cells: Manual of Basic Technique, Alan R. Liss, New York; Paul(1975) Cell and Tissue Culture, 5^(th) ed., Livingston, Edinburgh; Adams(1980) Laboratory Techniques in Biochemistry and Molecular Biology-CellCulture for Biochemists, Work and Burdon (eds.) Elsevier, Amsterdam.Additional details regarding tissue culture procedures of particularinterest in the production of influenza virus in vitro include, e.g.,Merten et al. (1996) Production of influenza virus in cell cultures forvaccine preparation. In Cohen and Shafferman (eds) Novel Strategies inDesign and Production of Vaccines, which is incorporated herein in itsentirety. Additionally, variations in such procedures adapted to thepresent invention are readily determined through routineexperimentation.

Cells for production of influenza virus can be cultured inserum-containing or serum free medium. In some case, e.g., for thepreparation of purified viruses, it is desirable to grow the host cellsin serum free conditions. Cells can be cultured in small scale, e.g.,less than 25 ml medium, culture tubes or flasks or in large flasks withagitation, in rotator bottles, or on microcarrier beads (e.g.,DEAE-Dextran microcarrier beads, such as Dormacell, Pfeifer & Langen;Superbead, Flow Laboratories; styrene copolymer-tri-methylamine beads,such as Hillex, SoloHill, Ann Arbor) in flasks, bottles or reactorcultures. Microcarrier beads are small spheres (in the range of 100-200microns in diameter) that provide a large surface area for adherent cellgrowth per volume of cell culture. For example a single liter of mediumcan include more than 20 million microcarrier beads providing greaterthan 8000 square centimeters of growth surface. For commercialproduction of viruses, e.g., for vaccine production, it is oftendesirable to culture the cells in a bioreactor or fermenter. Bioreactorsare available in volumes from under 1 liter to in excess of 100 liters,e.g., Cyto3 Bioreactor (Osmonics, Minnetonka, Minn.); NBS bioreactors(New Brunswick Scientific, Edison, N.J.); laboratory and commercialscale bioreactors from B. Braun Biotech International (B. Braun Biotech,Melsungen, Germany).

Regardless of the culture volume, in the context of the presentinvention, it is important that the cultures be maintained at atemperature less than or equal to 35° C., to insure efficient recoveryof recombinant and/or reassortant influenza virus using the multiplasmid system described herein. For example, the cells are cultured ata temperature between about 32° C. and 35° C., typically at atemperature between about 32° C. and about 34° C., usually at about 33°C.

Typically, a regulator, e.g., a thermostat, or other device for sensingand maintaining the temperature of the cell culture system is employedto insure that the temperature does not exceed 35° C. during the periodof virus replication.

Introduction of Vectors into Host Cells

Vectors comprising influenza genome segments are introduced (e.g.,transfected) into host cells according to methods well known in the artfor introducing heterologous nucleic acids into eukaryotic cells,including, e.g., calcium phosphate co-precipitation, electroporation,microinjection, lipofection, and transfection employing polyaminetransfection reagents. For example, vectors, e.g., plasmids, can betransfected into host cells, such as COS cells, 293T cells orcombinations of COS or 293T cells and MDCK cells, using the polyaminetransfection reagent TransIT-LT1 (Mirus) according to the manufacturer'sinstructions. Approximately 1 μg of each vector to be introduced intothe population of host cells with approximately 2 μl of TransIT-LT1diluted in 160 μl medium, preferably serum-free medium, in a total vol.of 200 μl. The DNA:transfection reagent mixtures are incubated at roomtemperature for 45 min followed by addition of 800 μl of medium. Thetransfection mixture is added to the host cells, and the cells arecultured as described above. Accordingly, for the production ofrecombinant or reassortant viruses in cell culture, vectorsincorporating each of the 8 genome segments, (PB2, PB1, PA, NP, M, NS,HA and NA) are mixed with approximately 20 μl TransIT-LT1 andtransfected into host cells. Optionally, serum-containing medium isreplaced prior to transfection with serum-free medium, e.g., Opti-MEM I,and incubated for 4-6 hours.

Alternatively, electroporation can be employed to introduce vectorsincorporating influenza genome segments into host cells. For example,plasmid vectors incorporating an influenza A or influenza B virus arefavorably introduced into Vero cells using electroporation according tothe following procedure. In brief, 5×10⁶ Vero cells, e.g., grown inModified Eagle's Medium (MEM) supplemented with 10% Fetal Bovine Serum(FBS) are resuspended in 0.4 ml OptiMEM and placed in an electroporationcuvette. Twenty micrograms of DNA in a volume of up to 25 μl is added tothe cells in the cuvette, which is then mixed gently by tapping.Electroporation is performed according to the manufacturer'sinstructions (e.g., BioRad Gene Pulser II with Capacitance Extender Plusconnected) at 300 volts, 950 microFarads with a time constant of between28-33 msec. The cells are remixed by gently tapping and approximately1-2 minutes following electroporation 0.7 ml MEM with 10% FBS is addeddirectly to the cuvette. The cells are then transferred to two wells ofa standard 6 well tissue culture dish containing 2 ml MEM, 10% FBS orOPTI-MEM without serum. The cuvette is washed to recover any remainingcells and the wash suspension is divided between the two wells. Finalvolume is approximately 3.5 mls. The cells are then incubated underconditions permissive for viral growth, e.g., at approximately 33° C.for cold adapted strains.

Recovery of Viruses

Viruses are typically recovered from the culture medium, in whichinfected (transfected) cells have been grown. Typically crude medium isclarified prior to concentration of influenza viruses. Common methodsinclude filtration, ultrafiltration, adsorption on barium sulfate andelution, and centrifugation. For example, crude medium from infectedcultures can first be clarified by centrifugation at, e.g., 1000-2000×gfor a time sufficient to remove cell debris and other large particulatematter, e.g., between 10 and 30 minutes. Alternatively, the medium isfiltered through a 0.8 μm cellulose acetate filter to remove intactcells and other large particulate matter. Optionally, the clarifiedmedium supernatant is then centrifuged to pellet the influenza viruses,e.g., at 15,000×g, for approximately 3-5 hours. Following resuspensionof the virus pellet in an appropriate buffer, such as STE (0.01 MTris-HCl; 0.15 M NaCl; 0.0001 M EDTA) or phosphate buffered saline (PBS)at pH 7.4, the virus is concentrated by density gradient centrifugationon sucrose (60%-12%) or potassium tartrate (50%-10%). Either continuousor step gradients, e.g., a sucrose gradient between 12% and 60% in four12% steps, are suitable. The gradients are centrifuged at a speed, andfor a time, sufficient for the viruses to concentrate into a visibleband for recovery. Alternatively, and for most large scale commercialapplications, virus is elutriated from density gradients using azonal-centrifuge rotor operating in continuous mode. Additional detailssufficient to guide one of skill through the preparation of influenzaviruses from tissue culture are provided, e.g., in Furminger. VaccineProduction, in Nicholson et al. (eds) Textbook of Influenza pp. 324-332;Merten et al. (1996) Production of influenza virus in cell culturesforvaccine preparation, in Cohen & Shafferman (eds) Novel Strategies inDesign and Production of Vaccines pp. 141-151, and U.S. Pat. No.5,690,937. If desired, the recovered viruses can be stored at −80° C. inthe presence of sucrose-phosphate-glutamate (SPG) as a stabilizer

Methods and Compositions for Prophylactic Administration of Vaccines

Recombinant and reassortant viruses of the invention can be administeredprophylactically in an appropriate carrier or excipient to stimulate animmune response specific for one or more strains of influenza virus.Typically, the carrier or excipient is a pharmaceutically acceptablecarrier or excipient, such as sterile water, aqueous saline solution,aqueous buffered saline solutions, aqueous dextrose solutions, aqueousglycerol solutions, ethanol, allantoic fluid from uninfected Hens' eggs(i.e., normal allantoic fluid “NAF”) or combinations thereof. Thepreparation of such solutions insuring sterility, pH, isotonicity, andstability is effected according to protocols established in the art.Generally, a carrier or excipient is selected to minimize allergic andother undesirable effects, and to suit the particular route ofadministration, e.g., subcutaneous, intramuscular, intranasal, etc.

Generally, the influenza viruses of the invention are administered in aquantity sufficient to stimulate an immune response specific for one ormore strains of influenza virus. Preferably, administration of theinfluenza viruses elicits a protective immune response. Dosages andmethods for eliciting a protective immune response against one or moreinfluenza strains are known to those of skill in the art. For example,inactivated influenza viruses are provided in the range of about 1-1000HID₅₀ (human infectious dose), i.e., about 10⁵-10⁸ pfu (plaque formingunits) per dose administered. Alternatively, about 10-50 μg, e.g., about15 μg HA is administered without an adjuvant, with smaller doses beingadministered with an adjuvant. Typically, the dose will be adjustedwithin this range based on, e.g., age, physical condition, body weight,sex, diet, time of administration, and other clinical factors. Theprophylactic vaccine formulation is systemically administered, e.g., bysubcutaneous or intramuscular injection using a needle and syringe, or aneedleless injection device. Alternatively, the vaccine formulation isadministered intranasally, either by drops, large particle aerosol(greater than about 10 microns), or spray into the upper respiratorytract. While any of the above routes of delivery results in a protectivesystemic immune response, intranasal administration confers the addedbenefit of eliciting mucosal immunity at the site of entry of theinfluenza virus. For intranasal administration, attenuated live virusvaccines are often preferred, e.g., an attenuated, cold adapted and/ortemperature sensitive recombinant or reassortant influenza virus. Whilestimulation of a protective immune response with a single dose ispreferred, additional dosages can be administered, by the same ordifferent route, to achieve the desired prophylactic effect.

Alternatively, an immune response can be stimulated by ex vivo or invivo targeting of dendritic cells with influenza viruses. For example,proliferating dendritic cells are exposed to viruses in a sufficientamount and for a sufficient period of time to permit capture of theinfluenza antigens by the dendritic cells. The cells are thentransferred into a subject to be vaccinated by standard intravenoustransplantation methods.

Optionally, the formulation for prophylactic administration of theinfluenza viruses, or subunits thereof, also contains one or moreadjuvants for enhancing the immune response to the influenza antigens.Suitable adjuvants include: saponin, mineral gels such as aluminumhydroxide, surface active substances such as lysolecithin, pluronicpolyols, polyanions, peptides, oil or hydrocarbon emulsions, bacilleCalmette-Guerin (BCG), Corynebacterium parvum, and the syntheticadjuvants QS-21 and MF59.

If desired, prophylactic vaccine administration of influenza viruses canbe performed in conjunction with administration of one or moreimmunostimulatory molecules. Immunostimulatory molecules include variouscytokines, lymphokines and chemokines with immunostimulatory,immunopotentiating, and pro-inflammatory activities, such asinterleukins (e.g., IL-1, IL-2, IL-3, IL-4, IL-12, IL-13); growthfactors (e.g., granulocyte-macrophage (GM)-colony stimulating factor(CSF)); and other immunostimulatory molecules, such as macrophageinflammatory factor, Flt3 ligand, B7. 1; B7.2, etc. Theimmunostimulatory molecules can be administered in the same formulationas the influenza viruses, or can be administered separately. Either theprotein or an expression vector encoding the protein can be administeredto produce an immunostimulatory effect.

In another embodiment, the vectors of the invention including influenzagenome segments can be employed to introduce heterologous nucleic acidsinto a host organism or host cell, such as a mammalian cell, e.g., cellsderived from a human subject, in combination with a suitablepharmaceutical carrier or excipient as described above. Typically, theheterologous nucleic acid is inserted into a non-essential region of agene or gene segment, e.g., the M gene of segment 7. The heterologouspolynucleotide sequence can encode a polypeptide or peptide, or an RNAsuch as an antisense RNA or ribozyme. The heterologous nucleic acid isthen introduced into a host or host cells by producing recombinantviruses incorporating the heterologous nucleic, and the viruses areadministered as described above.

Alternatively, a vector of the invention including a heterologousnucleic acid can be introduced and expressed in a host cells byco-transfecting the vector into a cell infected with an influenza virus.Optionally, the cells are then returned or delivered to the subject,typically to the site from which they were obtained. In someapplications, the cells are grafted onto a tissue, organ, or system site(as described above) of interest, using established cell transfer orgrafting procedures. For example, stem cells of the hematopoieticlineage, such as bone marrow, cord blood, or peripheral blood derivedhematopoietic stem cells can be delivered to a subject using standarddelivery or transfusion techniques.

Alternatively, the viruses comprising a heterologous nucleic acid can bedelivered to the cells of a subject in vivo. Typically, such methodsinvolve the administration of vector particles to a target cellpopulation (e.g., blood cells, skin cells, liver cells, neural(including brain) cells, kidney cells, uterine cells, muscle cells,intestinal cells, cervical cells, vaginal cells, prostate cells, etc.,as well as tumor cells derived from a variety of cells, tissues and/ororgans. Administration can be either systemic, e.g., by intravenousadministration of viral particles, or by delivering the viral particlesdirectly to a site or sites of interest by a variety of methods,including injection (e.g., using a needle or syringe), needlelessvaccine delivery, topical administration, or pushing into a tissue,organ or skin site. For example, the viral vector particles can bedelivered by inhalation, orally, intravenously, subcutaneously,subderrnally, intradermally, intramuscularly, intraperitoneally,intrathecally, by vaginal or rectal administration, or by placing theviral particles within a cavity or other site of the body, e.g., duringsurgery.

The above described methods are useful for therapeutically and/orprophylactically treating a disease or disorder by introducing a vectorof the invention comprising a heterologous polynucleotide encoding atherapeutically or prophylactically effective polypeptide (or peptide)or RNA (e.g., an antisense RNA or ribozyme) into a population of targetcells in vitro, ex vivo or in vivo. Typically, the polynucleotideencoding the polypeptide (or peptide), or RNA, of interest is operablylinked to appropriate regulatory sequences as described above in thesections entitled “Expression Vectors” and “Additional ExpressionElements.” Optionally, more than one heterologous coding sequence isincorporated into a single vector or virus. For example, in addition toa polynucleotide encoding a therapeutically or prophylactically activepolypeptide or RNA, the vector can also include additional therapeuticor prophylactic polypeptides, e.g., antigens, co-stimulatory molecules,cytokines, antibodies, etc., and/or markers, and the like.

The methods and vectors of the present invention can be used totherapeutically or prophylactically treat a wide variety of disorders,including genetic and acquired disorders, e.g., as vaccines forinfectious diseases, due to viruses, bacteria, and the like.

Kits

To facilitate use of the vectors and vector systems of the invention,any of the vectors, e.g., consensus influenza virus plasmids, variantinfluenza polypeptide plasmids, influenza polypeptide library plasmids,etc., and additional components, such as, buffer, cells, culture medium,useful for packaging and infection of influenza viruses for experimentalor therapeutic purposes, can be packaged in the form of a kit.Typically, the kit contains, in addition to the above components,additional materials which can include, e.g., instructions forperforming the methods of the invention, packaging material, and acontainer.

Manipulation of Viral Nucleic Acids and Proteins

In the context of the invention, influenza virus nucleic acids and/orproteins are manipulated according to well known molecular biologytechniques. Detailed protocols for numerous such procedures, includingamplification, cloning, mutagenesis, transformation, and the like, aredescribed in, e.g., in Ausubel et al. Current Protocols in MolecularBiology (supplemented through 2000) John Wiley & Sons, New York(“Ausubel”); Sambrook et al. Molecular Cloning—A Laboratory Manual (2ndEd.), Vol. 1-3, Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory, Cold Spring Harbor, N.Y.,1989 (“Sambrook”), and Berger and Kimmel Guide to Molecular CloningTechniques, Methods in Enzymology volume 152 Academic Press, Inc., SanDiego, Calif. (“Berger”).

In addition to the above references, protocols for in vitroamplification techniques, such as the polymerase chain reaction (PCR),the ligase chain reaction (LCR), Qβ-replicase amplification, and otherRNA polymerase mediated techniques (e.g., NASBA), useful e.g., foramplifying cDNA probes of the invention, are found in Mullis et al.(1987) U.S. Pat. No. 4,683,202; PCR Protocols A Guide to Methods andApplications (Innis et al. eds) Academic Press Inc. San Diego, Calif.(1990) (“Innis”); Arnheim and Levinson (1990) C&EN 36; The Journal OfNIH Research (1991) 3:81; Kwoh et al. (1989) Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 86,1173; Guatelli et al. (1990) Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 87:1874; Lomell etal. (1989) J Clin Chem 35:1826; Landegren et al. (1988) Science241:1077; Van Brunt (1990) Biotechnology 8:291; Wu and Wallace (1989)Gene 4: 560; Barringer et al. (1990) Gene 89:117, and Sooknanan andMalek (1995) Biotechnology 13:563. Additional methods, useful forcloning nucleic acids in the context of the present invention, includeWallace et al. U.S. Pat. No. 5,426,039. Improved methods of amplifyinglarge nucleic acids by PCR are summarized in Cheng et al. (1994) Nature369:684 and the references therein.

Certain polynucleotides of the invention, e.g., oligonucleotides can besynthesized utilizing various solid-phase strategies includingmononucleotide- and/or trinucleotide-based phosphoramidite couplingchemistry. For example, nucleic acid sequences can be synthesized by thesequential addition of activated monomers and/or trimers to anelongating polynucleotide chain. See e.g., Caruthers, M. H. et al.(1992) Meth Enzymol 211:3.

In lieu of synthesizing the desired sequences, essentially any nucleicacid can be custom ordered from any of a variety of commercial sources,such as The Midland Certified Reagent Company (mcrc@oligos.com), TheGreat American Gene Company (www.genco.com), ExpressGen, Inc.(www.expressgen.com), Operon Technologies, Inc. (www.operon.com), andmany others.

In addition, substitutions of selected amino acid residues in viralpolypeptides can be accomplished by, e.g., site directed mutagenesis.For example, viral polypeptides with amino acid substitutionsfunctionally correlated with desirable phenotypic characteristic, e.g.,an attenuated phenotype, cold adaptation, temperature sensitivity, canbe produced by introducing specific mutations into a viral nucleic acidsegment encoding the polypeptide. Methods for site directed mutagenesisare well known in the art, and described, e.g., in Ausubel, Sambrook,and Berger, supra. Numerous kits for performing site directedmutagenesis are commercially available, e.g., the Chameleon SiteDirected Mutagenesis Kit (Stratagene, La Jolla), and can be usedaccording to the manufacturers instructions to introduce, e.g., one ormore amino acid substitutions described in Table 6 or Table 17, into agenome segment encoding a influenza A or B polypeptide, respectively.

EXAMPLES Example 1 Construction of pAD3000

The plasmid pHW2000 (Hoffmann et al. (2000) A DNA transfection systemfor generation of influenza A virus from eight plasmids Proc Natl AcadSci USA 97:6108-6113) was modified to replace the bovine growth hormone(BGH) polyadenylation signals with a polyadenylation signal sequencesderived from Simian virus 40 (SV40).

Sequences derived from SV40 were amplified with Taq MasterMix (Qiagen)using the following oligonucleotides, designated in the 5′ to 3′direction: (SEQ ID NO:1) polyA.1:AACAATTGAGATCTCGGTCACCTCAGACATGATAAGATACATTGATGAGT (SEQ ID NO:2)polyA.2: TATAACTGCAGACTAGTGATATCCTTGTTTATTGCAGCTTATAATGGTTA

The plasmid pSV2His was used as a template. A fragment consistent withthe predicted 175 bp product was obtained and cloned into pcDNA3.1,using a Topo TA cloning vector (Invitrogen) according to themanufacturer's directions. The desired 138 bp fragment containing theSV40 polyadenylation signals was excised from the resulting plasmid withEcoRV and BstEII, isolated from an agarose gel, and ligated between theunique PvuII and BstEI sites in pHW2000 using conventional techniques(see, e.g., Ausubel, Berger, Sambrook). The resulting plasmid, pAD3000(FIG. 1), was sequenced and found to contain the SV40 polyadenylationsite in the correct orientation. Nucleotides 295-423 in pAD3000correspond to nucleotides 2466-2594, respectively, in SV40 strain 777(AF332562).

Example 2 Eight Plasmid System for Production of MDV-A

A cold-adapted influenza virus type A strain A/AA/6/60 variant hascommonly been used as a master donor virus for the production of nasallyadministered Influenza A vaccines. This strain is an exemplary MasterDonor Virus (MDV) in the context of the present invention. Forsimplicity, this strain A/AA/6/60 variant is designated herein MDV-A.MDV-A viral RNA was extracted using the RNeasy mini kit (Qiagen) and theeight corresponding cDNA fragments were amplified by RT-PCR using theprimers listed in Table 1. TABLE 1 Sequence of the primers used forcloning MDV-A eight segments SEQ ID. Primer Sequence (5′-3′) MDV-AFORWARD PRIMERS SEQ ID AarI PB2 long CAC TTA TAT TCA CCT GCC TCA NO:3GGG AGC GAA AGC AGG TC SEQ ID BsmBI-PBI TAT TCG TCT CAG GGA GCG AAA NO:4GCA GGC AAA SEQ ID BsmBI-PA TAT TCG TCT CAG GGA GCG AAA NO:5 GCA GGT ACTSEQ ID BsmBI-NP TAT TCG TCT CAG GGA GCA AAA NO:6 GCA GGG TAG A SEQ IDAarI HA-long CAC TTA TAT TCA CCT GCC TCA NO:7 GGG AGC AAA AGC AGG GG SEQID BsmBI-NA TAT TCG TCT CAG GGA GCA AAA NO:8 GCA GGA GTG A SEQ IDBsmBI-M TAT TCG TCT CAG GGA GCA AAA NO:9 GCA GGT AGA T SEQ ID BsmBI-NSTAT TCG TCT CAG GGA GCA AAA NO:10 GCA GGG TGA MDV-A REVERSE PRIMERS SEQID AarI PB2-long CCT AAC ATA TCA CCT GCC TCG NO:11 TAT TAG TAG AAA CAAGGT CGT TT SEQ ID BsmBI-PBI ATA TCG TCT CGT ATT AGT AGA NO:12 AAC AAGGCA TTT SEQ ID BsmBI-PA ATA TCG TCT CGT ATT AGT AGA NO:13 AAC AAG GTACTT SEQ ID BsmBI-NP ATA TCG TCT CGT ATT AGT AGA NO:14 AAC AAG GGT ATTSEQ ID AarI HA-long CCT AAC ATA TCA CCT GCC TCG NO:15 TAT TAG TAG AAACAA GGG TGT T SEQ ID BsmBI-NA ATA TCG TCT CGT ATT AGT AGA NO:16 AAC AAGGAG TTT SEQ ID BsmBI-M ATA TCG TCT CGT ATT AGT AGA NO:17 AAC AAG GTA GTTSEQ ID BsmBI-NS ATA TCG TCT CGT ATT AGT AGA NO:18 AAC AAG GGT GTT

With the exception of the influenza genome segments encoding HA and PB2,which were amplified using the primers containing Aar I restrictionenzyme recognition site, the remaining 6 genes were amplified withprimers containing the BsmB I restriction enzyme recognition site. BothAarI and BsmB I cDNA fragments were cloned between the two BsmB I sitesof the pAD3000 vector.

Sequencing analysis revealed that all of the cloned cDNA fragmentscontained mutations with respect to the consensus MDV-A sequence, whichwere likely introduced during the cloning steps. The mutations found ineach gene segment are summarized in Table 2. TABLE 2 Mutationsintroduced into the MDV-A clones in pAD3000 Gene segment Mutationpositions (nt) Amino acid changes PB2 A954(G/C/T), G1066A, Silent, Glyto Ser, Val to Ala, T1580C, T1821C Silent PB1 C1117T Arg to Stop PAG742A, A1163G, A1615G, Gly to Ser, Asp to Gly, Arg to T1748C, C2229delGly, Met to Thr, non-coding HA A902C, C1493T Asn to His, Cys to Arg NPC113A, T1008C Thr to Asn, silent NA C1422T Pro to Leu M A191G Thr to AlaNS C38T Silent

All the mutations were corrected back to the consensus MDV-A sequenceusing a QuikChange Site-directed Mutagenesis Kit (Stratagene) andsynthetic oligonucleotide primers as shown in Table 3. TABLE 3 Primersused for correcting the mutations in the MDV-A clones HJ67 PB2A954G5/P/gcaagctgtggaaatatgcaaggc (SEQ ID NO:19) HJ68 PB2A954G.asgccttgcatatttccacagcttgc (SEQ ID NO:20) HJ69 PB2G1066A5/P/gaagtgcttacgggcaatcttcaaac (SEQ ID NO:21) PB2 HJ70 PB2G1066A.asgtttgaaqattgcccgtaagcacttc (SEQ ID NO:22) HJ71 PB2T1580A5/P/cctgaggaggtcagtgaaacac (SEQ ID NO:23) HJ72 PB2T1580A.asgtgtttcactgacctcctcagg (SEQ ID NO:24) HJ73 PB21821C5/P/gtttgttaggactctattccaac (SEQ ID NO:25) HJ74 PB21821C.asgttggaatagagtcctaacaaac (SEQ ID NO:26) PB1 HJ75 PB1C1117Tgacagtaagctccgaacacaaatac (SEQ ID NO:27) HJ76 PB1C1117T.asgtatttgtgttcggagcttcatgc (SEQ ID NO:28) HJ77 PA-G742A5/P/cgaaccgaacggctacattgaggg (SEQ ID NO:29) HJ78 PA-G742A.asccctcaatgtagccgttcggttcg (SEQ ID NO:30) HJ79 PA-A1163G5/P/cagagaaggtagatttgacgactg (SEQ ID NO:31) HJ80 PA-A1163G.ascagtcgtcaaagtctaccttctctg (SEQ ID NO:32) PA HJ81 PA-A1615G5/P/cactgacccaagacttgagccac (SEQ ID NO:33) HJ82 PA-A1615G.asgtggctcaagtcttgggtcagtg (SEQ ID NO:34) HJ83 PA-T1748C5/P/caaagattaaaatgaaatqgggaatg (SEQ ID NO:35) HJ84 PA-T1748C.ascattccccatttcattttaatctttg (SEQ ID NO:36) HJ85 PA-C22295/P/gtaccttgtttctactaataacccgg (SEQ ID NO:37) HJ86 PA-C2230.asccgggttattagtagaaacaaggtac (SEQ ID NO:38) HJ87 HA-A902C5/P/ggaacacttgagaactgtgagacc (SEQ ID NO:39) HA HJ88 HA-A902C.asggtctcacagttctcaagtgttcc (SEQ ID NO:40) HJ89 HA-C1493T5/P/gaattttatcacaaatgtgatgatgaatg (SEQ ID NO:41) HJ90 HA-C1493T.ascattcatcatcacatttgtgataaaattc (SEQ ID NO:42) HJ91 NP-C113A5/P/gccaqaatgcaactgaaatcagagc (SEQ ID NO:43) NP HJ92 NP-C113A.asgctctgatttcagtttcattctggc (SEQ ID NO:44) HJ93 NP-T1008C5/P/ccgaatgagaatccagcacacaag (SEQ ID NO:45) HJ94 NP-T1008C.ascttgtqtgctggattctcattcgg (SEQ ID NO:46) HJ95 NA-C1422Tcatcaatttcatgcctatataagctttc (SEQ ID NO:47) NS HJ96 NA-C1422T.asgaaagcttatataggcatgaaattgatg (SEQ ID NO:48) HJ97 NS-C38Tcataatggatcctaacactgtgtcaagc (SEQ ID NO:49) HJ98 NS-C38T.asgcttgacacagtgttaggatccattatg (SEQ ID NO:50) PA HJ99 PAGC375Tggagaatagattcatcgagattggag (SEQ ID NO:51) HJ100 PA6C375T.asctccaatctcgatgaatctattctcc (SEQ ID NO:52)

Example 3 Generation of Infectious Recombinant MDV-A and ReassortedInfluenze Virus

Madin-Darby canine kidney (MDCK) cells and human COS7 cells weremaintained in modified Eagle Medium (MEM) containing 10% fetal bovineserum (FBS). Human embryonic kidney cells (293T) were maintained inOpti-MEM I (Life Technologies) containing 5% FBS. MDCK and either COS7or 293T cells were co-cultured in 6-well plates at a ratio of 1:1 andthe cells were used for transfection at a confluency of approximately80%. 293T and COS7 cells have a high transfection efficiency, but arenot permissive for influenza virus replication. Co-culture with MDCKcells ensures efficient replication of the recombinant viruses. Prior totransfection, serum-containing media were replaced with serum freemedium (Opti-MEM I) and incubated for 4-6 hours. Plasmid DNAtransfection was performed using TransIT-LT1 (Mirus) by mixing 1 μg ofeach of the 8 plasmid DNAs (PB2, PB1, PA, NP, M, NS, HA and NA) with 20μl of TransIT-LT1 diluted in 160 μl Opti-MEM I in a total volume of 200μl. The DNA:transfection reagent mixtures were incubated at roomtemperature for 45 min followed by addition of 800 μl of Opti-MEM I. Thetransfection mixture was then added to the co-cultured MDCK/293T orMDCK/COS7 cells. The transfected cells were incubated at 35° C. or 33°C. for between 6 hours and 24 hours, e.g., overnight, and thetransfection mixture was replaced with 1 ml of Opti-MEM I in each well.After incubation at 35° C. or 33° C. for 24 hours, 1 ml of Opti-MEM Icontaining 1 μg/ml TPCK-trypsin was added to each well and incubated foran additional 12 hours. The recovered virus was then amplified inconfluent MDCK cells or directly amplified in embryonated chick eggs.MDCK cells in 12-well plate were infected with 0.2 ml of thetransfection mixture for 1 hour at room temperature, the mixture wasthen removed and replaced with 2 ml of Opti-MEM I containing 1 μg/mlTPCK-trypsin. The cells were incubated at 35° C. or 33° C. for 3-4 days.The amplified viruses were stored at −80° C. in the presence of SPGstabilizer or plaque-purified and amplified in MDCK cells or chickenembryonic eggs.

Functional Expression of MDV-A Polymerase Proteins

Functional activity of the four MDV-A polymerase proteins, PB2, PB1, PAand NP, were analyzed by their ability to replicate an influenza virusminigenome encoding an EGFP reporter gene. A set of 8 expressionplasmids (see, e.g., Table 4) (Hoffmann et al. (2001) Eight plasmidrescue system for influenza A virus; Optionsfor the control of influenzaInternational Congress Series 1219:1007-1013) that contained the cDNAsof A/PR/8/34 strain (H1N1) and an influenza virus minigenome containinga reporter gene encoding the enhanced green fluorescent protein (EGFP,pHW72-EGFP).

The MDV-A PB1, PB2, PA and NP or PB1, PA, NP (−PB2 as a negativecontrol) were transfected into the co-cultured MDCK/293T cells togetherwith a plasmid representing an influenza A virus EGFP minigenome(pHW72-EGFP)(Hoffmann et al. (2000) “Ambisense” approach for thegeneration of influenza A virus. vRNA and mRNA synthesis from onetemplate Virology 15:267(2):310-7). The transfected cells were observedunder phase contrast microscope or fluorescence microscope at 48 hourspost-transfection. Alternatively, flow cytometry can be employed todetect EGFP expression.

As shown in FIG. 2, green fluorescence, indicating expression of theEGFP minigenome was observed in the cells transfected with PB2, PB1, PAand NP of MDV-A, but not in the cells transfected with only threepolymerase proteins. This indicated that the MDV-A polymerase proteinsin pAD3000 were functional.

In other assays a minigenome including the chloramphenicol acetyltransferase (CAT) gene, designated pFlu-CAT is utilized to measurepolymerase activity. In such an assay, CAT expression is measured at theprotein (e.g., by ELISA) or RNA level, as an indicator of minigenomereplication.

Analysis of the MDV-A Plasmids by Single Gene Reassortant Experiment

Each of the 8 MDV-A genome segments cloned in pAD3000 was shown to befunctionally expressed in a reassortant experiment by co-transfecting asingle gene segment from MDA-A together with the complementary sevensegments from control A/PR/8/34 strain. All eight single genome segmentplasmids in combination with complementary control segments generatedinfectious reassortant virus, which caused cytopathic effects ininfected MDCK cells, indicating that all eight plasmids encodefunctional MDV-A proteins. Table 4. TABLE 4 Recovery of 7 + 1reassortants by plasmids Virus gene seg- ment PB2 PB1 PA NP 1 PMDV-A-PB2pHW191-PB2 pHW191-PB2 pHW191-PB2 2 PHW192-PB1 pMDV-A-PB1 pHW192-PB1pHW192-PB1 3 PHW193-PA pHW193-PA pMDV-A-PA pHW193-PA 4 PHW195-NPpHW195-NP pHW195-NP pMDV-A-NP 5 PHW197-M pHW197-M pHW197-M pHW197-M 6PHW198-NS pHW198-NS pHW198-NS pHW198-NS 7 PHW194-HA pHW194-HA pHW194-HApHW194-HA 8 PHW-196-NA pHW-196-NA pHW-196-NA pHW-196-NA CPE (+) (+) (+)(+) Virus gene seg- ment M NS HA NA 1 PHW191-PB2 pHW191-PB2 pHW191-PB2pHW191-PB2 2 PHW192-PB1 pHW192-PB1 pHW192-PB1 pHW192-PB1 3 PHW193-PApHW193-PA pHW193-PA pHW193-PA 4 PHW195-NP pHW195-NP pHW195-NP pHW195-NP5 PMDV-A-M pHW197-M pHW197-M pHW197-M 6 PHW198-NS pMDV-A-NS pHW198-NSpHW198-NS 7 PHW194-HA pHW194-HA pMDV-A-HA pHW194-HA 8 PHW-196-NApHW-196-NA pHW-196-NA pMDV-A-NA CPE (+) (+) (+) (+)

To further determine the packaging constraints of influenza A virus, theNS segment was separated into two separate gene segments: one encodingthe NS1 genomic segment and the other encoding the NS2 genomic segment.The nine plasmids incorporating the genomic segments of influenza A weretransfected into MDCK/COS cells as described above, and the recoveredviruses were amplified in embryonated chicken eggs prior to titratio onMDCK cells. Reduced plaque size was observed for the nine-plasmid systemas compared to the eight-plasmid system described above. RT-PCR analysisdemonstrated that only the S2 segment was present in the virions, andthat the NS1 gene segment was not packaged.

Recovery of MDV-A and 6:2 Reassortant Viruses

Following the procedures described above, three days post transfectionwith either the 8 MDV-A plasmids (recombinant), or with plasmidsincorporating the 6 MDV-A internal genes, and HA and NA derived fromA/PR/8/34 (6:2 reassortant), transfected culture supernatants were usedto infect fresh MDCK cells, and the infected cells were incubated at 33°C. for three days in the presence of 1 μg/ml TPCK-trypsin. Thecytoplasmic effect of the recombinant virus on infected MDCK cells wasobserved using a microscope. Expression of viral hemagglutinin wasmonitored using a standard hemagglutination assay (HA). HA assays wereperformed by mixing 50 μl of serially 2-fold diluted culturesupernatants with 50 μl of 1% chick red blood cells in 96-well plates. AHA titer of approximately 1:254-1:1024 was detected for the amplifiedviruses derived from either the transfected 8 MDV-A plasmids, or the 6:2reassortant virus. The transfection reaction using the 8 A/PR/8/34plasmid obtained from Dr. E. Hoffman was used as a positive control.Infectious influenza viruses were produced from these three transfectionreactions as indicated in Table 5. TABLE 5 Plasmids used for recovery ofA/PR/8/34, MDV-A and 6:2 reassortant Virus gene segment A/PR/8/34 (H1N1)rMDV-A(H2N2) 6:2 reassortant 1 pHW191-PB2 (AD731) pMDV-A-PB2#2 (AD760)pMDV-A-PB2#2 (AD760) 2 pHW192-PB1(AD732) pMDV-A-PB1 (AD754) pMDV-A-PB1(AD754) 3 pHW193-PA (AD733) pMDV-A-PA (AD755) pMDV-A-PA (AD755) 4pHW195-NP (AD735) pMDV-A-NP#1 (AD757) pMDV-A-NP#1 (AD757) 5 pHW197-M(AD737) pMDV-A-M (AD752) pMDV-A-M (AD752) 6 pHW198-NS (AD738) pMDV-A-NS(AD750) pMDV-A-NS (AD750) 7 pHW194-HA (AD734) pMDV-A-HA (AD756)pHW194-HA (AD734) 8 pHW-196-NA(AD735) pMDV-A-NA#4 (AD759) pHW196-NA(AD736) CPE + + +

RT-PCR was performed to map the genotypes of the recovered viruses.Viral RNA was isolated from the infected cell culture supernatant usingthe RNeasy mini Kit (Qiagen) and the eight influenza virus segments wereamplified by RT-PCR using primers specific to each MDV-A gene segmentand H1- and N1-specific primers. As shown in FIG. 3, rMDV-A containedPB2, PB1, NP, PA, M and NS that were specific to MDV-A and HA and NAspecific to the H2 and N2 subtype. The 6:2 reassortant contained the 6internal genes derived from MDV-A, and the HA and NA derived fromA/PR/8/34 (H1N1). This confirmed that viruses generated from thetransfected plasmids had the correct genotypes.

The rescued viruses were titrated by plaque assay on MDCK cells and theplaques were confirmed to be influenza virus by immunostaining usingchicken serum raised against MDV-A. MDCK cells at 100% confluency on12-well plates were infected with 100 μl of 10-fold serially dilutedvirus at RT for 1 hour with gentle rocking. The inoculum was removed andthe cells were overlaid with 1× L15 containing 0.8% agarose and 1 μg/mlTPCK-trypsin. The plates were incubate at 35° C. or 33° C. for threedays, fixed with 100% methanol, blocked by 5% milk in PBS, and incubatedwith 1:2000 diluted chicken anti-MDV-A antiserum for 1 hour followed byincubation with HRP-conjugated rabbit anti-chicken IgG for 1 hr. Theplaques were visualized by addition of the HRP substrate solution(DAKO). All the recovered viruses exhibited positive immunostaining.

Example 4 Mapping the Genetic Basis of CA, TS, ATT Phenotypes of MDV-A

The MDV-A influenza virus vaccine strain has several phenotypes relevantto the production of vaccines, e.g., live attenuated vaccines: coldadaptation (ca), temperature sensitivity (ts) and attenuation (att).Sequence comparison of the MDV-A strain with the non-ts virulent wtA/AA/6/60 strain revealed that a minimal of 17 nt differences betweenthese two strains (Table 6). Several of the changes in the MDV-Asequence are unique to this strain as compared to all the availableinfluenza type A viruses in the GeneBank database, suggesting that oneor more of these amino acid substitutions is functionally related to theatt, ca and ts phenotype(s). The single amino acid change at PB2⁸²¹ wasthe only nucleotide position that had been previously reported as adeterminant in the ts phenotype of MDV-A (Subbarao et al. (1995)Addition of Temperature-Sensitive Missense Mutations into the PB2 Geneof Influenza A Transfectant Viruses Can Effect an Increase inTemperature Sensitivity and Attenuation and Permits the Rational Designof a Genetically Engineered Live Influenza A Virus Vaccine J. Virol.69:5969-5977).

In order to pinpoint the minimal substitutions involved in the MDV-Aphenotypes, the nucleotides in the MDV-A clone that differ from wtA/AA/6/60 were individually changed to those of wt A/AA/6/60 (i.e.,“reverted”). Each reverted gene segment was then introduced into hostcells in combination with complementary segments of MDV-A to recover thesingle gene reassortants. In addition, the reverted gene segment and thecorresponding MDV-A segment can also be transfected in combination withsegments derived from other wild type strains, e.g., strain A/PR/8/34,to assess the contribution of each gene segment to the virus phenotypes.Using the recombinant MDV-A plasmid system described above,site-directed mutagenesis was performed to further modify the sixinternal genes to produce a non-ts reassortant. A total of 15nucleotides substitution mutations were introduced into the six MDV-Aplasmids to represent the recombinant wild type A/AA/6/60 genome (rWt,Flu064) as listed in Table 6. Madin-Darby canine kidney (MDCK) cells andCOS-7 cells were maintained and transfected as described above. Therecovered virus was then passaged in MDCK cells once, followed byamplification in the allantoic cavities of embryonic chicken eggs.Transfection and virus growth in MDCK and eggs were performed at 33° C.,a temperature permissive for both ca and wt viruses to minimize anytemperature selection pressures. Virus genotype was confirmed bysequence analysis of cDNA fragments amplified from viral RNA. TABLE 6Sequence Comparisons of “wt” A/AA/6/60 and MDV-A Base RNA (amino acid)rWT Segment Position E10SE2 MDV-A (Flu044) PB2  141 A G A  821 (265) A(Asn) G(Ser) A 1182 A T T 1212 C T T 1933 T C T PB1  123 A G G 1195(391) A (Lys) G (Glu) A 1395 (457) G (Glu) T (Asp) G 1766 (581) A (Glu)G (Gly) A 2005 (661) G (Ala) A (Thr) A 2019 C T C PA  20 T C T 1861(613) A (Lys) G (Glu) G 2167/8 (715) TT (Leu) CC (Pro) TT NP  146 (34) A(Asp) G (Gly) G 1550 ‘5A’ ‘6A’ ‘6A’ M  969 (M2-86) G (Ala) T (Ser) G NS 483 (NS1-153) G (Ala) A (Thr) GNumbers in bold represent the differences between rMDV-A and rWt. Wordsin bold (15) are the changes between rmdv-a and rwt.

Phenotypic characteristics were determined by procedures known in theart, e.g., as previously described in U.S. Pat. No. 6,322,967 to Parkinentitled “Recombinant tryptophan mutants of influenza,” which isincorporated herein in its entirety. Briefly, temperature sensitivity ofthe recombinant viruses was determined by plaque assay on MDCK cells at33, 38 and 39° C. MDCK cells in 6-well plates were infected with 400 μlof 10-fold serially diluted virus and adsorbed at room temperature for60 min. The innoculants were removed and replaced with 1× L15/MEMcontaining 1% agarose and 1 μg/ml TPCK-trypsin. The infected cells wereincubated at 33° C. in a CO₂ incubator or in water-tight containerscontaining 5% CO₂ submerged in circulating water baths maintained at38±0.1° C. or 39±0.1° C. (Parkin et al. (1996) Temperature sensitivemutants of influenza A virus generated by reverse genetics and clusteredcharged to alanine mutagenesis. Vir. Res. 46:31-44). After three days'incubation, the monolayers were immunostained using chicken anti-MDVpolyclonal antibodies and the plaques were enumerated. Plaque countsobtained at each of the temperatures were compared to assess the tsphenotype of each virus and each assay was performed a minimum of threetimes. The shut-off temperature was defined as the lowest temperaturethat had a titer reduction of 100-fold or greater compared to 33° C.

Infectious virus obtained from the cocultured COS-7/MDCK cellstransfected with the eight plasmids (pMDV-PB2, pMDV-PB1, pMDV-PA,pMDV-NP, pMDV-HA, pMDV-NA, pMDV-M, and pMDV-NS) was amplified in chickenembryonated eggs, and was shown to exhibit the characteristic tsphenotype of nonrecombinant, biological derived MDV-A (Table 7). NeitherMDV-A nor rMDV-A formed distinct plaques at 39° C., although both formedeasily visualized plaques at 33° C. TABLE 7 Replication of MDV/Wtreassortants at various temperatures Virus with 33° C./ Wt genes 33° C.38° C. 33° C./38° C. 39° C. 39° C. MDV 8.91 6.10 2.82 <4.0^(†) >4.91rMDV-A 8.72 6.19 2.53 <4.0 >4.72 Wt (E10SE2) 8.86 8.87 −0.01 8.87 −0.01rWT (Flu064) 9.02 9.07 −0.05 8.96 0.06 Wt-PB2 8.46 7.87 0.59 5.80* 2.66Wt-PB1 8.92 8.74 0.18 7.86* 1.06 Wt-NP 8.40 7.24 1.15 <4.0 >4.40 Wt-PA8.57 6.10 2.48 <4.0 >4.57 Wt-M 8.80 6.68 2.12 <4.0 >4.80 Wt-NS 8.72 6.102.62 <4.0 >4.72 Wt-PB1/PB2 8.94 8.89 0.05 8.10* 0.85 Wt-PB1/PB2/NP 8.528.38 0.14 8.41 0.1*Indicates reduction in plaque size compared to rWt.^(†)The underlined indicates that no plaques were detected at 10⁻⁴-folddilution

In order to perform a systematic, detailed analysis of the genetic basisof the ts phenotype of MDV-A, the sequences of several closely relatednon-ts, non-att wt A/AA/6/60 strains with 17-48 nt differences from theca A/AA/6/60, including the highly related isolate, wt A/AA/6/60 E10SE2,were utilized for comparison. A total of 19 nt differences exist betweenE10SE2 and MDV-A (Table 6). E10SE2 was shown to be non-ts (Table 7) andnon-att in ferrets. In order to generate a recombinant non-ts virus, theMDV-A plasmids were altered by site directed mutagenesis to incorporate15 of the 19 differences representing 10 amino acids changes. Four ofthe nucleotide positions, PB2-1182, 1212, PB1-123, and NP-1550, thatdiffered between MDV-A and E10SE2 were not altered from the MDV-Asequence, since these nucleotides were observed in other non-ts isolatesof A/AA/6/60 and, therefore, not expected to have a role in expressionof the ts phenotype (Herlocher et al. (1996) Sequence comparisons ofA/AA/6/60 influenza viruses: mutations which may contribute toattenuation. Virus Research 42:11-25). Recombinant virus (rWt, Flu064),encoding the 15 nucleotide changes, was obtained from the coculturedCOS-7/MDCK cells transfected with a set of 8 plasmids, pWt-PB2, pWt-PB1,pWt-PA, pWt-NP, pWt-M, pWt-NS, pMDV-HA, and pMDV-NA. Sequencing analysisindicated that rWt contained the designed genetic changes and was non-tsat 39° C., identical to the biologically derived wt A/AA/6/60. Theseobservations demonstrated that the ts phenotype mapped to a subset ofthese 15 nt changes.

Contribution of the Six Internal Gene Segments to Virus ts Phenotype

The effect of each wt gene segment on the MDV-A ts phenotype wasassessed by creating recombinant, single-gene reassortants (Table 7).Introduction of wt PB2 into rMDV-A resulted in a virus that was onlynon-ts at 38° C.; however, it remained ts at 39° C. The reduction invirus titer at 38° C. and 39° C. (relative to 33° C.) was 0.6 log₁₀ and2.7 log₁₀, respectively, as measured by plaque assay in MDCK cells. Thereassortant containing the wt PB1 gene segment was non-ts, with respectto its ability to form plaques at both 38 and 39° C. The plaque size ofthis recombinant, however, was influenced by increased temperature andwas significantly reduced at 39° C. as compared to rWt. Introduction ofthe wt NP gene segment into rMDV-A resulted in a virus that was alsonon-ts at 38° C., but in contrast to the wt PB2 recombinant, the viruscontaining the wt NP gene segment did not form plaques at 39° C.Introduction of wt PA, M or NS gene segments independently into rMDV-Adid not alter the ts phenotype, indicating that these three genesegments had minimal role in maintenance of this phenotype.

Because neither wt PB1, wt PB2 or wt NP expressed individually on theMDV-A background could create a plaque efficiency and plaques sizeprofile identical to non-ts rWT, these gene segments were introducedinto MDV-A in various combinations. The combination of wt PB1 and wt PB2resulted in a virus that was non-ts at both 38 and 39° C. (Table 7).Although the plaque size was larger than that of either single genereassortant, it was significantly smaller than rWt. The triplecombination of wt PB1/PB2/NP in rMDV-A resulted in a virus that wassimilar or identical to rWt in its plaquing efficiency and plaque sizeat 39° C. Therefore, whereas the wt PB2, PB1 and NP gene segments onlypartially reverted the ts phenotype when introduced individually, thecombination of all three wt gene segments was able to fully revert thets phenotype to a non-ts behavior identical to rWt.

In order to determine whether these 3 gene segments were capable ofimparting the characteristic MDV-A ts phenotype to rWt, the six internalgene segments derived from MDV-A were introduced into rWt individuallyor in combination. Introduction of single PB1, PB2, or NP gene segmentinto rWt resulted in a reduction of virus titer at 38° C. and a greaterreduction at 39° C., however, none of these single gene reassortants wasas restricted at high temperature as rMDV-A (FIG. 10). The PA, M and NSgene segments derived from MDV-A did not influence the non-ts phenotypeof rWt. Consistent with the previous reasortments, it was demonstratedthat introduction of both MDV-A PB1 and PB2 genes into rWt backbonegreatly increased virus ts phenotype at 38° C.; however, completereversion of virus ts phenotype required addition of the NP gene. Thus,the PB1, PB2 and NP gene segments derived from MDV-A were important inconferring the complete ts phenotype.

Mapping the Genetic Loci that Determined MDV-A ts Phenotype.

The specific differences between the PB1, PB2 and NP gene segments ofrWt and rMDV-A were addressed systematically to identify those changesthat played a significant role in the ts phenotype. The NP gene ofrMDV-A differed from rWt NP only at nt 146 (G34D, Table 6). The PB2 geneof rMDV-A differed from rWt at three sites, but only nt 821 resulted inan amino acid change (N265S, Table 6) and presumably represented the tslocus located in the PB2 gene segment. The PB1 gene of MDV-A differedfrom wt PB1 at 6 nt positions, of which 4 were coding changes (Table 6).Each of the wt amino acid residue substitutions was substitutedindividually into the PB1 gene segment of rMDV-A to assess their role inthe ts phenotype. 1395G (Glu-457) and 2005G (Ala) did not affect theMDV-A ts phenotype. 1195A (Lys-391) and 1766A (Glu-581) each resulted ina slight reduction in the ts phenotype at 38° C., but had no effect at39° C. (Table 8). These data indicated that 1195A and 1766A were thelikely ts loci in the PB1 gene segment. However, combination of both1195A and 1766A did not produce a ts phenotype similar to wt PB1 (Table6). Addition of 2005G but not 1395A to PB1-1195A/1766A further decreasedthe virus ts phenotype at 39° C., demonstrating that 2005A also had arole in the expression of the ts phenotype specified by the PB1 segmentof MDV-A. TABLE 8 Mapping the residues in PB1 that determine tsphenotype Virus 33° C./38° C. with Wt sequence 33° C. 38° C. log₁₀PFU/mL 39° C. 33° C./39° C. rMDV-A 8.67 6.00 2.67 <4.0 ^(†) >4.67 rWt9.04 9.01 0.03   9.03 0.01 PB1-1195A 8.06 6.68 1.38 <4.0 >4.06 PB1-1395G8.72 5.88 2.85 <4.0 >4.72 PB1-1766A 8.07 6.70 1.37 <4.0 >4.07 PB1-2005G8.76 6.31 2.45 <4.0 >4.76 PB1-1195A1766A 8.65 7.60 1.05   5.98* 2.68PB1-1195A1395G1766A 8.84 8.13 0.71   6.38* 2.46 PB1-1195A1766A2005G 8.798.12 0.66   7.14* 1.64 PB1/PB2/NP 8.26 8.63 0.12   8.59 0.16 PB2/NP 8.818.21 0.59   7.56* 1.25 PB1-1195A/PB2/NP 8.86 8.81 0.05   7.60* 1.26PB1-1766A/PB2/NP 9.33 8.84 0.50   8.71* 0.62 PB1-1766A2005G/PB2/NP 8.308.22 0.08   8.11* 0.18 PB1-1766A1395G/PB2/NP 8.88 8.85 0.03   8.39* 0.49PB1-1195A1766A/PB2/NP 8.45 8.48 0.06   8.10 0.35*Indicates reduction in plaque size compared to rWt.^(†)The underlined indicates that no plaques were detected at 10⁻⁴-folddilution.

PB1 single site mutations were then introduced together with wt PB2 andwt NP into rMDV-A. Wt PB2/NP and rMDV-A reassortant was non-ts at 38° C.and had a titer reduction of 1.25 log₁₀ at 39° C. but its plaque sizewas much reduced compared to rWt. Addition of either PB1-1195A or 1766Adid not significantly change the phenotype of wt PB2/NP reassortant.Only the combination of PB1-1195A and 1766A, together with a wt PB2 andwt NP, resulted in a virus that had the same non-ts phenotype as wtPB1/PB2/NP and rMDV-A reassortant (Table 8). Addition of PB1-1395G or2005G to wt PB1-1766/PB2/NP did not convert the virus to acharacteristic rWt non-ts phenotype. These data, therefore, demonstratedthat the four amino acids distributed in the three PB1, PB2 and NP genescould completely revert the MDV-A ts phenotype.

Host Cell Restriction of MDV-A and Reassortant Viruses

In addition to the temperature sensitivity and attenuation phenotypesexhibited by the MDV-A virus and reassortant viruses with one or moreMDV-A derived segment as described above, the MDV-A virus exhibited hostcell restriction as indicated by reduced growth in Per.C6 cells relativeto growth in MDCK cells. MDV-A and reassortant viruses with MDV-Aderived PB1 and PB2 segments exhibited significantly reduced growth inPer.C6 cells relative to their growth in MDCK cells, as shown in FIGS.20A and B.

Engineering of a Temperature Sensitive, Attenuated Virus Strain

To determine whether the five amino acids identified in the PB1, PB2 andNP gene segments of MDV-A would reproduce the ts and att phenotypes ofMDV-A, PB1-391E, 581G, 661T, PB2-265S, NP-34G were introduced into adivergent wild type virus strain (A/PR/8/34; “PR8”), and the resultingvirus exhibited 1.9 log₁₀ reduction in virus titer at 38° C. and 4.6log₁₀ reduction at 39° C., which was very similar to that of rMDV-A(FIG. 11).

Sequence comparison between the PB1, PB2 and NP genes of ca A/AA/6/60(MDV-A) and A/PR/8/34 revealed that the four substituted amino acidsidentified in the PB1 and PB2 genes of MDV-A are unique. NP³⁴ isconserved between MDV-A and PR8, Therefore, the three ts sites, PB1³⁹¹(K391 E), PB1⁵⁸1 (E581G) and PB1⁶⁶¹ (A661T), identified in the PB1 geneof MDV-A were introduced into PB1 of A/PR/8/34 and the PB2²⁶⁵ (N265S)was introduced into PB2 of A/PR/8/34 by site-directed mutagenesis. Themutations introduced into the PB1 and PB2 genes were verified bysequencing analysis. The primer pairs used for mutagenesis reaction arelisted as in Table 9. These viruses are shown schematically in FIG. 16.TABLE 9 Primers used for introducing ts mutations into PR8 PB1 and PB2genes HJ240 PR8-PB1A1195G 5′ GAAAGAAGATTGAAGAAATCCGACCGCTC (SEQ IDNO:79) HJ241 PR8-PB1A1195G.as 5′ GAGCGGTCGGATTTCTTCAATCTTCTTTC (SEQ IDNO:80) HJ242 PR8-PB1A1766G 5′ GAAATAAAGAAACTGTGGGGGCAAACCCGTTCC (SEQ IDNO:81) HJ243 PRS-PB1A1766G.as 5′ GGAACGGGTTTGCCCCCACAGTTTCTTTATTTC (SEQID NO:82) HJ244 PR8-PB1G2005A 5′ GTATGATGCTGTTACAACAACACACTCC (SEQ IDNO:83) HJ245 PR8-PB1G2005A.as 5′ GGAGTGTGTTGTTGTAACAGCATCATAC (SEQ IDNO:84) HJ246 PR8-PB2A821G 5′ ATTGCTGCTAGGAGCATAGTGAGAAGAGC (SEQ IDNO:85) HJ247 PR8-PB2A82lG.as 5′ GCTCTTCTCACTATGCTCCTAGCAGCAAT (SEQ IDNO:86)

To examine if the ts mutations introduced into PB1 and PB2 genes of PR8confer the ts phenotype in vitro, a minigenome assay was performed. Theinfluenza minigenome reporter, designated pFlu-CAT, contained thenegative sense CAT gene cloned under the control of the pol I promoter.Expression of the CAT protein depended on the expression of influenzaPB1, PB2, PA, and NP proteins.

Briefly, HEp-2 cells were transfected with 1 μg of each of PB1, PB2, PA,NP and pFlu-CAT minigenome by lipofectamine 2000 (Invitrogen). Afterovernight (approximately 18 hour) incubation at 33° C. or 39° C., thecell extracts were analyzed for CAT protein expression by CAT ELISA kit(Roche Bioscience). The level of CAT mRNA was measured by primerextension assay. At 48 hr post-transfection, total cellular RNA wasextracted by TRIzol reagent (Invitrogen) and ⅓ of RNA was mixed with anexcess of DNA primer (5′-ATGTTCTTTACGATGCGATTGGG, SEQ ID NO:89) labeledat its 5′ end with [r-³²P]-ATP and T4 polynucleotide kinase in 6 ul ofwater. Following denaturing at 95° C. for 3 min, primer extension wasperformed after addition of 50 U of superscript reverse transcriptase(Invitrogen) in the reaction buffer provided with the enzyme containing0.5 mM dNTP for 1 hr at 42° C. Transcription products were analyzed on6% polyacrylamide gels containing 8M urea in TBE buffer and weredetected by autoradiograph.

As shown in FIGS. 12A and B, the PB1 gene carrying three amino acidsubstitutions (PR8-3s), PB1³⁹¹ (K391E), PB1⁵⁸¹ (E581G) and PB1⁶⁶¹(A661T), had reduced activity at 33° C. compared to PR8 control. Agreater reduction in CAT protein expression (FIG. 12A) was observed forthis mutant at 39° C., indicating PB1 gene with the three introducedMDV-A ts sites exhibited temperature sensitive replication in this invitro assay. Introduction of PB2²⁶⁵ (N265S) into PR8 had very littleeffect on its activity at both permissive (33° C.) and nonpermissivetemperatures (39° C.). Combination of both PB1-3s and PB2-1s resulted ingreater reduction in protein activity (PR8-4s), which appeared to beeven more ts than MDV-A. As expected, a low level activity (15%) wasdetected in cells transfected with PB1, PB2, PA, NP genes derived fromMDV-A at 39° C. compared to wt A/AA/6/60 (wt A/AA).

PR8 mutant viruses were generated and recovered as described above. Inbrief, co-cultured cos7 and MDCK cells were transfected with eightplasmids encoding PR8 HA, NA, PB1, PB2, PA, NP, M and NS genes derivedfrom PR8. To make a virus carrying four ts loci (PR8-4s), PB1-3scontaining three changes in PB1 at positions nt 1195 (K391E), nt 1766(E581G) and nt 2005 (A661T) and PB1-1s containing one change in PB2 atposition 821 (N265S) were used. In addition, PR8 virus carrying eitherthree mutations in PB1 (PR8-3s) or one mutation in PB2 (PR8-1s) was alsorecovered separately. These viruses are shown schematically in FIG. 16.All four of the recombinant mutant PR8 viruses grew to very high titerin embryonic eggs, reaching a titer of 9.0 log10pfu/ml or greater asshown in Table 10.

To examine viral protein synthesis in infected cells, MDCK cells wereinfected with virus at an m.o.i of 5 and cells were labeled with³⁵S-Trans at 7 hr post-infection for 1 hr. The labeled cell lysate waselectrophoresed on 1.5% polyacrylamide gel containing SDS andautoradiographed. Protein synthesis was also studied by Westernblotting. Virus infected cells were harvested at 8 hr postinfection andelectrophoresed on 4-15% gradient gel. The blot was probed with anti-M1antibody or chicken anti-MDV-A polyclonal antibody, followed byincubation with HRP-conjugated secondary antibody. Theantibody-conjugated protein bands were detected by the ChemiluminescentDetection System (Invitrogen) followed by exposure to X-ray film.

As shown in FIG. 19, all had a similar level of protein synthesis at 33°C., however, at 39° C. the level of protein synthesis was reducedslightly for PR8-1s but greatly reduced in PR8-3s and PR8-4s infectedcells. Western blotting analysis also showed that reduced proteinsynthesis in the order of PR8-4s>PR8-3s>PR8-1s. Thus, the reducedreplication of the ts mutants was likely the result of their reducedreplication at the nonpermissive temperatures.

Temperature sensitivity of the PR8 mutant viruses was determined byplaque assay on MDCK cells at 33° C., 37° C., 38° C. and 39° C. Therecovered viruses were amplified in embryonic eggs and introduced intocells as described above. After incubation of virus-infected cells forthree days at the designated temperatures, cell monolayers wereimmunostained using chicken anti-MDV polyclonal antibodies and theplaques were enumerated. Plaque counts obtained at each of thetemperatures were compared to assess the ts phenotype of each virus. Theshut-off temperature was defined as the lowest temperature that had atiter reduction of 100-fold or greater compared to 33° C.

As shown in Table 10 and FIG. 17, all mutants replicated well at 33° C.although a slight reduction in virus titer was observed. At 38° C., asignificant reduction in virus titer was observed for all the mutants.At 39° C., a reduction in virus titer greater than 4.0 log₁₀ wasobserved for viruses carrying the three ts loci in the PB1 gene (PR8-3sand PR8-4s). PR8-1s was also ts at 39° C. The ts phenotype of PR8-4s wasvery similar to that of MDV-A that had a reduction of 4.6 log₁₀ at 39°C. compared to 33° C. Although all the three PR8 mutants did not havegreater than 2.0 log₁₀ reduction in virus titer at 37° C., their plaquemorphology was different from those at 33° C. As shown in FIG. 18, theplaque size for each mutant was only slightly reduced at 33° C. comparedto PR8. A significant reduction in plaque size at 37° C. was observedfor PR8-3s and greater for PR8-4s. PR8-1s did not have significantreduction in plaque size at 37° C. At 39° C., only a few pin-point sizedplaques were observed for both PR8-3s and PR8-4s. The plaque size ofapproximately 30% of that wt PR8 was observed for PR8-1s. TABLE 10Temperature sensitivity of PR8 with the introduced ts loci Virus titer(log₁₀pfu/ml) Virus 33° C. 37° C. 38° C. 39° C. MDV-A 8.6 7.0 6.4 4*  WtA/AA 8.7 8.7 8.9 8.3 PR8 9.6 9.5 9.5 9   PB8-1s 9.4 8.9 7.7 7.4 PB8-3s9.2 8.8 7.8 5.2 PB8-4s 9.5 7.8 7.1 4.4A titer of 4.0 was assigned when no virus was detected at 10,000dilutions.

Attenuation of the mutant PR8 viruses was examined in ferrets. In brief,male ferrets 9-10 weeks old were used to assess virus replication in therespiratory tracts of an animal host. Ferrets were housed individuallyand inoculated intranasally with 8.5 log₁₀pfu of virus. Three days afterinfection, ferrets were sedated with ketamine-HCL, lungs and nasalturbinates (NT) were harvested. The lung tissue homogenates wereserially diluted and titrated in 10-day-old embryonated chicken eggs.Virus titer (log₁₀EID₅₀/ml) in lungs was calculated by the Karbermethods. Virus replication in NT was determined by plaque assay andexpressed as log₁₀pfu/ml.

The levels of virus replication in lungs and nasal turbinates weremeasured by EID50 or plaque assays (Table 11). Three days afterinfection, PR8 replicated to a level of 5.9 log₁₀EID50/gram lungtissues. However, PR8-1s exhibited a 3.0 log₁₀ reduction in replicationof ferret lungs and very little replication was detected for PR8-3s. Noreplication was detected for PR8-4s that was studied in two virus groupsinfected with virus obtained independently. Virus detection limit inferret lungs by EID50 assay is 1.5 log₁₀ and thus a titer of 1.5log₁₀EID50 was assigned for PR8-4s. As a control, MDV-A did notreplicate in ferret lungs and wt A/AA/6/60 replicated to a titer of 4.4log₁₀. Virus replication in nasal turbinates (NT) was examined by plaqueassay on MDCK cells. PR8 replicated to a titer of 6.6 log₁₀pfu/g in thenose. Only slight reductions in virus titer were observed for PR8-1s andPR8-3s. A reduction of 2.2 log₁₀ was observed for PR8-4s (A), whereas a4.3 log₁₀ reduction was observed for PR8-4s (B), which carried a changein the PB1 gene (E390G). The greatly reduced replication of PR8-4s (B)correlates well with its ts phenotype at 37° C. An infectious dose of8.5 log10pfu was used here instead of 7.0 log10pfu that was usually usedfor evaluating the attenuation phenotype of MDV-A derived influenzavaccines. This result indicated that PR8 carrying the four ts lociderived from MDV-A was attenuated in replication in the lowerrespiratory tracts of ferrets. TABLE 11 Replication of PR8 mutants inferrets Virus titer in nasal turbinates Dose Virus titer in lungs(log₁₀/g ± Virus Ferrets (log₁₀pfu) (log₁₀EID50/g ± SE) SE) PR8 4 8.55.9 ± 0.3 6.6 ± 0.1 PR8-1s 4 8.5 3.8 ± 0.4 5.9 ± 0.2 PR8-3s 4 8.5 1.7 ±0.1 5.8 ± 0.3 PR8-4s (A) 4 8.5  1.5 ± 0.0^(a) 4.6 ± 0.2 PR8-4s (B)^(b) 48.5 1.5 ± 0.0 2.3 ± 0.3 MDV-A 4 8.5 1.5 ± 0.0 4.6 ± 0.1 Wt A/AA 4 8.54.4 ± 0.1 5.4 ± 0.1no virus was detected and a titer of 1.5 log₁₀EID50/g was assigned Thevirus contains an additional change in PB1-1193 (E390G)

In both the ts and att assays, the PR8 mutant virus exhibited both tsand att phenotypes that were very similar to that of MDV-A. These dataindicate that introduction of the unique amino acid substitutions of theMDV-A into a divergent influenza virus strain results in a virusexhibiting the temperature sensitive and attenuated phenotypes desirablefor producing, e.g., live attenuated, vaccines. Additionally, the ts,att, PR-8 virus grew to a high titer that suitable for use as a masterdonor virus for the production of live attenuated or inactivatedinfluenza vaccines. These results indicate that the five MDV-Amutations: PB1-391E, PB1-581G, PB1-661T, PB2-265S, and NP-34G can impartthe ts and att phenotypes to any influenza A strains. Similarly, novelts, att B strains suitable for vaccine production can be produced byintroducing the mutations of the MDV-B strain into influenza B strainviruses. In addition to producing live attenuated virus vaccines,introduction of these mutations into donor strains will lead to theproduction of safer inactivated vaccines.

Example 5 Eight Plasmid System for Production of MDV-B

Viral RNA from a cold adapted variant of influenza B/Ann Arbor/1/66(ca/Master Ann Arbor/1/66 P1 Aviron 10/2/97), an exemplary influenza Bmaster donor strain (MDV-B) was extracted from 100 μl of allantoic fluidfrom infected embryonated eggs using the RNeasy Kit (Qiagen, Valencia,Calif.), and the RNA was eluted into 40 μl H₂O. RT-PCR of genomicsegments was performed using the One Step RT-PCR kit (Qiagen, Valencia,Calif.) according to the protocol provided, using 1 μl of extracted RNAfor each reaction. The RT-reaction was performed 50 min at 50° C.,followed by 15 min at 94° C. The PCR was performed for 25 cycles at 94°C. for 1 min, 54° C. for 1 min, and 72° C. for 3 min. The P-genes wereamplified using segment specific primers with BsmBI-sites that resultedin the generation of two fragments (Table 12). TABLE 12 RT-PCR primersfor amplification of the eight vRNAs of influenza ca B/Ann Arbor/1/66.Forward primer Reverse primer PB1 Bm-PB1b-1: (SEQ ID NO:53)Bm-PB1b-1200R: (SEQ ID NO:54) [1A]TATTCGTCTCAGGGAGCAGAAGCGGAGCCTTTAAGATGTATTCGTCTCGATGCCGTTCCTTCTTCATTGAAGAATGG PB1 Bm-PB1b-1220: (SEQ ID NO:55)Bm-PB1b-2369R: (SEQ ID NO:56) [1B]TATTCGTCTCGGCATCTTTGTCGCCTGGGATGATGATG ATATCGTCTCGTATTAGTAGAAACACGAGCCTTPB2 Bm-PB2b-1: (SEQ ID NO:57) Bm-PB2b-1145R: (SEQ ID NO:58) [2A]TATTCGTCTCAGGGAGCAGAAGCGGAGCGTTTTCAAGATGTATTCGTCTCTCTCATTTTGCTCTTTTTTAATATTCCCC PB2 Bm-PB2b-1142: (SEQ ID NO:59)Bm-PB2b-2396R: (SEQ ID NO:60) [2B]TATTCGTCTCATGAGAATGGAAAAACTACTAATAAATTCAGCATATCGTCTCGTATTAGTAGAAACACGAGCATT PA Bm-Pab-1: (SEQ ID NO:61)Bm-PAb-1261R: (SEQ ID NO:62) [3A] TATTCGTCTCAGGGAGCAGAAGCGGTGCGTTTGATATTCGTCTCCCAGGGCCCTTTTACTTGTCAGAGTGC PA Bm-Pab-1283: (SEQ ID NO:63)Bm-PAb-2308R: (SEQ ID NO:64) [3B]TATTCGTCTCTCCTGGATCTACCAGAAATAGGGCCAGACATATCGTCTCGTATTAGTAGAAACACGTGCATT HA MDV-B 5′ BsmBI-HA: (SEQ ID NO:65)MDV-B 3′ BsmBI-HA: (SEQ ID NO:66)TATTCGTCTCAGGGAGCAGAAGCAGAGCATTTTCTAATATCATATCGTCTCGTATTAGTAGTAACAAGAGCATTTTTC NP Ba-NPb-1: (SEQ ID NO:67)Ba-NPb-1842R: (SEQ ID NO:68) TATTGGTCTCAGGGAGCAGAAGCACAGCATTTTCTTGTATATGGTCTCGTATTAGTAGAAACAACAGCATTTTT NA MDV-B 5′ BsmBI-NA: (SEQ IDNO:69) MDV-B 3′ BsmBI-NA: (SEQ ID NO:70)TATTCGTCTCAGGGAGCAGAAGCAGAGCATCTTCTCAAAACATATCGTCTCGTATTAGTAGTAACAAGAGCATTTTTCAG M MDV-B 5′ BsmBI-M: (SEQ IDNO:71) MDV-B 3′ BsmBI-M: (SEQ ID NO:72)TATTCGTCTCAGGCAGCAGAAGCACGCACTTTCTTAAAATGATATCGTCTCGTATTAGTAGAAACAACGCACTTTTTCCAG NS MDV-B 5′ BsmBI-NS: (SEQ IDNO:73) MDV-B 3′ BsmBI-NS: (SEQ ID NO:74)TATTCGTCTCAGGGAGCAGAAGCAGAGGATTTGTTTAGTCATATCGTCTCGTATTAGTAGTAACAAGAGGATTTTTATThe sequences complementary to the influenza sequences are shown inbold. The 5′-ends have recognition sequences for the restrictionendonucleases BsmBI (Bm) or BsaI (Ba).Cloning of Plasmids

PCR fragments were isolated, digested with BsmBI (or BsaI for NP) andinserted into pAD3000 (a derivative of pHW2000 which allows thetranscription of negative sense vRNA and positive mRNA) at the BsmBIsite as described above. Two to four each of the resultant plasmids weresequenced and compared to the consensus sequence of MDV-B based onsequencing the RT-PCR fragments directly. Plasmids which had nucleotidesubstitutions resulting in amino acid changes different from theconsensus sequence were “repaired” either by cloning of plasmids or byutilizing the Quikchange kit (Stratagene, La Jolla, Calif.). Theresultant B/Ann Arbor/1/66 plasmids were designated pAB121-PB1,pAB122-PB2, pAB123-PA, pAB124-HA, pAB125-NP, pAB126-NA, pAB127-M, andpAB 128-NS. Using this bi-directional transcription system all viralRNAs and proteins are produced intracellularly, resulting in thegeneration of infectious influenza B viruses (FIG. 4).

It is noteworthy that pAB121-PB1 and pAB124-HA had 2 and pAB128-NS had 1silent nucleotide substitution compared to the consensus sequence (Table13). These nucleotide changes do not result in amino acid alterations,and are not anticipated to affect viral growth and rescue. These silentsubstitutions have been retained to facilitate genotyping of therecombinant viruses. TABLE 13 Plasmid set representing the eightsegments of B/Ann Arbor/1/66 (MDV-B) Seg. plasmids nucleotides proteinPB1 PAB121-PB1 A924 > G924; C1701 > T1701 silent PB2 PAB122-PB2consensus — PA PAB123-PA consensus — HA PAB124-HA T150 > C150; T153 >C153 silent NP PAB125-NP consensus — NA PAB126-NA consensus — M PAB127-Mconsensus — NS PAB128-NS A416 > G416 NS1: silent

For construction of the plasmids with nucleotide substitution in PA, NP,and M1 genes the plasmids pAB123-PA, pAB 125-NP, pAB127-M were used astemplates. Nucleotides were changed by Quikchange kit (Stratagene, LaJolla, Calif.). Alternatively, two fragments were amplified by PCR usingprimers which contained the desired mutations, digested with BsmBI andinserted into pAD3000-BsmBI in a three fragment ligation reaction. Thegenerated plasmids were sequenced to ensure that the cDNA did notcontain unwanted mutations.

The sequence of template DNA was determined by using Rhodamine ordRhodamine dye-terminator cycle sequencing ready reaction kits withAmpliTaq® DNA polymerase FS (Perkin-Elmer Applied Biosystems, Inc,Foster City, Calif.). Samples were separated by electrophoresis andanalyzed on PE/ABI model 373, model 373 Stretch, or model 377 DNAsequencers.

In a separate experiment, viral RNA from influenza B/Yamanshi/166/98 wasamplified and cloned into pAD3000 as described above with respect to theMDV-B strain, with the exception that amplification was performed for 25cycles at 94° C. for 30 seconds, 54° C. for 30 seconds and 72° C. for 3minutes. Identical primers were used for amplification of theB/Yamanashi/166/98 strain segments, with the substitution of thefollowing primers for amplification of the NP and NA segments: MDV-B5′BsmBI-NP: TATTCGTCTCAGGGAGCAGAAGCACAGCATTTTCTTGTG (SEQ ID NO:75) andMDV-B 3′BsmBI-NP:ATATCGTCTCGTATTAGTAGAAACAACAGCATTTTTTAC (SEQ ID NO:76)and Bm-NAb-1: TATTCGTCTCAGGGAGCAGAAGCAGAGCA (SEQ ID NO:77) andBm-NAb-1557R:ATATCGTCTCGTATTAGTAGTAACAAGAGCATTTT (SEQ ID NO:78),respectively. The B/Yamanashi/166/98 plasmids were designatedpAB251-PB1, pAB252-PB2, pAB253-PA, pAB254-HA, pAB255-NP, pAB256-NA,pAB257-M, and pAB258-NS. Three silent nucleotide differences wereidentified in PA facilitating genotyping of recombinant and reassortantB/Yamanashi/166/98 virus.

Example 6 Generation of Infectious Recombinant Influenze B andReassorted Influenza Virus

To overcome the obstacles encountered in attempting to grow influenza Bin a helper virus free cell culture system, the present inventionprovides novel vectors and protocols for the production of recombinantand reassortant B strain influenza viruses. The vector system used forthe rescue of influenza B virus is based on that developed for thegeneration of influenza A virus (Hoffmann et al. (2000) A DNAtransfection system for generation of influenza A virus from eightplasmids Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 97:6108-6113; Hoffmann & Webster (2000)Unidirectional RNA polymerase I-polymerase II transcription system forthe generation of influenza A virus from eight plasmids J Gen Virol81:2843-7). 293T or COS-7 cells (primate cells with high transfectionefficiency and polI activity) were co-cultured with MDCK cells(permissive for influenza virus), 293T cells were maintained in OptiMEMI-AB medium containing 5% FBS cells, COS-7 cells were maintained in DMEMI-AB medium containing 10% FBS. MDCK cells were maintained in 1× MEM,10% FBS with the addition of antibiotic and antimycotic agents. Prior totransfection with the viral genome vectors, the cells were washed oncewith 5 ml PBS or medium without FBS. Ten ml trypsin-EDTA was added toconfluent cells in a 75 cm² flask (MDCK cells were incubated for 20-45min, 293T cells were incubated for 1 min). The cells were centrifuged,and resuspended in 10 ml OptiMEM I-AB. One ml of each suspended cellline was then diluted into 18 ml OptiMEM I-AB, and mixed. The cells werethen aliquoted into a 6 well plate at 3 ml/well. After 6-24 hours, 1 μgof each plasmid was mixed in an 1.5 ml Eppendorf tube with OptiMEM I-ABto the plasmids (x μl plasmids+x μl OptiMEM I-AB+x μl TransIT-LT1=200μl); 2 μl TransIT-LT1 per μg of plasmid DNA. The mixture was incubatedat room temperature for 45 min. Then 800 μl of OptiMEM I-AB was added.The medium was removed from the cells, and the transfection mixture wasadded to the cells (t=0) at 33° C. for 6-15 hours. The transfectionmixture was slowly removed from the cells, and 1 ml of OptiMEM I-AB wasadded, and the cells were incubated at 33° C. for 24 hours. Forty-eighthours following transfection, 1 ml of OptiMEM I-AB containing 1 μg/mlTPCK-trypsin was added to the cells. At 96 hours post-transfection, 1 mlof OptiMEM I-AB containing 1 μg/ml TPCK-trypsin was added to the cells.

Between 4 days and 7 days following transfection 1 ml of the cellculture supernatant was withdrawn and monitored by HA or plaque assay.Briefly, 1 ml of supernatant was aliquoted into an Eppendorf tube andcentrifuge at 5000 rpm for 5 min. Nine hundred μl of supernatant wastransferred to a new tube, and serial dilutions were performed at 500μl/well to MDCK cells (e.g., in 12 well plates). The supernatant wasincubated with the cells for 1 hour then removed, and replaced withinfection medium (1×MEM) containing 1 μg/ml of TPCK-trypsin. HA assay orplaque assays were then performed. For example, for the plaque assayssupernatants were titrated on MDCK cells which were incubated with an0.8% agarose overlay for three days at 33° C. For infection of eggs thesupernatant of transfected cells were harvested six or seven days aftertransfection, 100 μl of the virus dilutions in Opti-MEM I were injectedinto 11 days old embryonated chicken eggs at 33° C. The titer wasdetermined three days after inoculation by TCID₅₀ assay in MDCK cells.

To generate MDV-B, either co-cultured 293T-MDCK or COS-7-MDCK cells weretransfected with 1 μg of each plasmid. When examined at 5 to 7 dayspost-transfection the co-cultured MDCK cells showed cytopathic effects(CPE), indicating the generation of infectious MDV-B virus from clonedcDNA. No CPE was observed in cells transfected with seven plasmids(Table 14). To determine the efficiency of the DNA transfection systemfor virus generation, supernatants of cells were titrated seven daysafter transfection on MDCK cells and the virus titer was determined byplaque assay. The virus titer of the supernatant of co-cultured293T-MDCK was 5.0×10⁶ pfu/ml and 7.6×10⁶ pfu/ml in COS7-MDCK cells.TABLE 14 Generation of infectious Influenza-B virus from eight plasmidssegment 1 2 3 4 PB1 pAB121-PB1 — PAB121-PB1 — PB2 pAB122-PB2 pAB122-PB2PAB122-PB2 pAB122-PB2 PA pAB123-PA pAB123-PA pAB123-PA pAB123-PA HApAB124-HA pAB124-HA pAB124-HA pAB124-HA NP pAB125-NP pAB125-NP pAB125-NPpAB125-NP NA pAB126-NA pAB126-NA pAB126-NA pAB126-NA M pAB127-M pAB127-MpAB127-M pAB127-M NS pAB128-NS pAB128-NS pAB128-NS pAB128-NS co-cultured293T-MDCK cells co-cultured COS-7-MDCK cells CPE + − + − pfu/ 5.0 × 10⁶0 7.6 × 10⁶ 0 ml

Transiently co-cultured 293T-MDCK (1, 2) or co-cultured COS7-MDCK cells(3, 4) were transfected with seven or eight plasmids. Cytopathic effect(CPE) was monitored seven days after transfection in the co-culturedMDCK cells. Seven days after transfection the supernatants oftransfected cells were titrated on MDCK cells. The data of pfu/mlrepresent the average of multiple, (e.g., three or four) transfectionexperiments.

Comparable results were obtained in transfection experiments utilizingthe B/Yamanashi/166/98 plasmid vectors. These results show that thetransfection system allows the reproducible de novo generation ofinfluenza B virus from eight plasmids.

Genotyping of Recombinant Influenza B

After a subsequent passage on MDCK cells, RT-PCR of the supernatant ofinfected cells was used to confirm the authenticity of the generatedvirus. RT-PCR was performed with segment specific primers for all eightsegments (Table 12). As shown in FIG. 5A, PCR products were generatedfor all segments. Direct sequencing of the PCR products of the PB1, HA,and NS segments revealed that the four nucleotides analyzed were thesame as found in the plasmid pAB121-PB1, pAB124-HA, and pAB128-NS. Theseresults confirmed that the generated virus was generated from thedesigned plasmids and exclude (in addition to the negative controls) anypossible laboratory contamination with the parent virus (FIG. 5B).

Similarly, following transfection with the B/Yamanashi/166/98 plasmidvectors, virus was recovered and the region encompassing nucleotides1280-1290 of the PA segment were amplified. Sequencing confirmed thatthe recovered virus corresponded to the plasmid-derived recombinantB/Yamanashi/166/98 (FIGS. 5C and D).

Phenotyping of rMDV-B

The MDV-B virus shows two characteristic phenotypes: temperaturesensitivity (ts) and cold adaptation (ca). By definition a 2 log (orhigher) difference in virus titer at 37° C. compared to 33° C. definests, ca is defined by less than 2 log difference in virus growth at 25°C. compared to 33° C. Primary chicken kidney (PCK) cells were infectedwith the parent virus MDV-B and with the transfected virus derived fromplasmids to determine the viral growth at three temperatures.

For plaque assay confluent MDCK cells (ECACC) in six well plates wereused. Virus dilutions were incubated for 30-60 min. at 33° C. The cellswere overlayed with an 0.8% agarose overlay. Infected cells wereincubated at 33° C. or 37° C. Three days after infection the cells werestained with 0.1% crystal violet solution and the number of plaquesdetermined.

The ca-ts phenotype assay was performed by TCID₅₀ titration of the virussamples at 25, 33, and 37° C. This assay format measures the TCID₅₀titer by examining the cytopathic effect (CPE) of influenza virus onprimary chick kidney cell monolayers in 96-well cell culture plates atdifferent temperatures (25° C., 33° C., 37° C.). This assay is notdependent on the plaque morphology, which varies with temperature andvirus strains; instead it is dependent solely on the ability ofinfluenza virus to replicate and cause CPE. Primary chicken kidney (PCK)cell suspension, prepared by trypsinization of the primary tissue, weresuspended in MEM (Earl's) medium containing 5% FCS. PCK cells wereseeded in 96 well cell culture plates for 48 hours in order to preparemonolayer with >90% confluency. After 48 hrs, the PCK cell monolayerwere washed for one hour with serum free MEM medium containing 5 mML-Glutamine, antibiotics, non-essential amino acid, referred asPhenotype Assay Medium (PAM). Serial ten-fold dilution of the virussamples were prepared in 96 well blocks containing PAM. The dilutedvirus samples were then plated onto the washed PCK monolayer in the 96well plates. At each dilution of the virus sample, replicates of sixwells were used for infection with the diluted virus. Un-infected cellsas cell control were included as replicate of 6 wells for each sample.Each virus sample was titered in 2-4 replicates. Phenotype control viruswith pre-determined titers at 25° C., 33° C., and 37° C. is included ineach assay. In order to determine the ts phenotype of the virus samples,the plates were incubated for 6 days at 33° C. and 37° C. in 5% CO₂ cellculture incubators. For ca-phenotype characterization the plates wereincubated at 25° C. for 10 days. The virus titer was calculated by theKarber Method and reported as Loglo Mean (n=4) TCID₅₀ Titer/ml±StandardDeviation. The standard deviations of the virus titers presented in FIG.1-3 ranged from 0.1 to 0.3. The difference in virus titer at 33° C. and37° C. were used to deterrnine the ts phenotype and difference in titerat 25° C. and 33° C. of the virus were used to determine the caphenotype.

The plasmid derived recombinant MDV-B (recMDV-B) virus expressed the twocharacteristic phenotypes in cell culture, ca and ts, as expected. Theca phenotype, efficient replication at 25° C., is functionally measuredas a differential in titer between 25° C. and 33° C. of less than orequal to 2 log10 when assayed on PCK cells. Both the parental MDV-B andrecMDV-B expressed ca; the difference between 25° C. and 33° C. was 0.3and 0.4 log10, respectively (Table 15). The ts phenotype is alsomeasured by observing the titers at two different temperatures on PCKcells; for this phenotype, however, the titer at 37° C. should be lessthan the titer at 33° C. by 2 log10 or more. The difference between 33°C. and 37° C. for the parental MDV-B and recMDV-B was 3.4 and 3.7 log10,respectively (Table 15). Thus, the recombinant plasmid-derived MDV-Bvirus expressed both the ca and ts phenotypes.

The recombinant virus had a titer of 7.0 log₁₀ TCID₅₀/ml at 33° C. and3.3 TCID₅₀/ml at 37° C. and 8.8 log₁₀ TCID₅₀/ml at 25° C. (Table 15).Thus, the recombinant virus derived from transfection with the eightinfluenza MDV-B genome segment plasmids has both the ca and tsphenotype. TABLE 15 Phenotype assay for MDV-B and rMDV-B generated fromplasmids Temperature ( 0 C.) 25 33 37 Virus Log10 TCID50/ml (Mean + SD)Phenotype ca B/Ann Arbor/01/ 8.8 + 0.3  8.5 + 0.05 5.1 + 0.1 ca, ts 66(MDV-B) RecMDV-B 7.4 + 0.3  7.0 + 0.13  3.3 + 0.12 ca, ts Rec53-MDV-B5.9 + 0.1 5.7 + 0.0 5.3 + 0.1 ca, non-tsPrimary chicken kidney cells were infected with the parent virus MDV-Band the plasmid-derived recombinant virus (recMDV-B). The virus titerwas determined at three different temperatures.

Example 7 Production of Reassortant B/Yamanashi/166/98 Virus

The HA and NA segments of several different strains representing themajor lineages of influenza B were amplified and cloned into pAD3000,essentially as described above. The primers were optimized forsimultaneous RT-PCR amplification of the HA and NA segments. Comparisonof the terminal regions of the vRNA representing the non coding regionof segment 4 (HA) and segment 6 (NB/NA) revealed that the 20 terminalnucleotides at the 5′ end and 15 nucleotides at the 3′end were identicalbetween the HA and NA genes of influenza B viruses. A primer pair forRT-PCR (underlined sequences are influenza B virus specific) Bm-NAb-1:TAT TCG TCT CAG GGA GCA GAA GCA GAG CA (SEQ ID NO:87); Bm-NAb-1557R: ATATCG TCT CGT ATT AGT AGT AAC AAG AGC ATT TT (SEQ ID NO:88) wassynthesized and used to simultaneously amplify the HA and NA genes fromvarious influenza B strains (FIG. 8). The HA and NA PCR-fragments ofB/Victoria/504/2000, B/Hawaii/10/2001, and B/Hong Kong/330/2001 wereisolated, digested with BsmBI and inserted into pAD3000. These resultsdemonstrated the applicability of these primers for the efficientgeneration of plasmids containing the influenza B HA and NA genes fromseveral different wild type viruses representing the major lineages ofinfluenza B. The RT-PCR products can be used for sequencing and/orcloning into the expression plasmids.

In order to demonstrate the utility of B/Yamanashi/166/98 (aB/Yamagata/16/88-like virus) to efficiently express antigens fromvarious influenza B lineages, reassortants containing PB1, PB2, PA, NP,M, NS from B/Yamanashi/166/98 and the HA and NA from strainsrepresenting both the Victoria and Yamagata lineages (6+2 reassortants)were generated. Transiently cocultured COS7-MDCK cells werecotransfected with six plasmids representing B/Yamanashi/166/98 and twoplasmids containing the cDNA of the HA and NA segments of two strainsfrom the B/Victoria/2/87 lineage, B/Hong Kong/330/2001 andB/Hawaii/10/2001, and one strain from the B/Yamagata/16/88 lineage,B/Victoria/504/2000, according to the methods described above. Six toseven days after transfection the supernatants were titrated on freshMDCK cells. All three 6+2 reassortant viruses had titers between 4-9×10⁶pfu/ml (Table 16). These data demonstrated that the six internal genesof B/Yamanashi/166/98 could efficiently form infectious virus with HAand NA gene segments from both influenza B lineages.

Supernatants of cocultured COS7-MDCK cells were titrated six or sevendays after transfection and the viral titer determined by plaque assayson MDCK cells. TABLE 16 Plasmid set used for the generation ofB/Yamanashi/166/98 and 6 + 2 reassortants. segment 1 — pAB251-PB1pAB251-PB1 pAB251-PB1 pAB251-PB1 2 pAB252-PB2 pAB252-PB2 pAB252-PB2pAB252-PB2 pAB252-PB2 3 pAB253-PA pAB253-PA pAB253-PA pAB253-PApAB253-PA 4 pAB254-HA pAB254-HA pAB281-HA pAB285-HA pAB287-HA 5pAB255-NP pAB255-NP pAB255-NP pAB255-NP pAB255-NP 6 pAB256-NA pAB256-NApAB291-NA pAB295-NA pAB297-NA 7 pAB257-M pAB257-M pAB257-M pAB257-MpAB257-M 8 pAB258-NA pAB258-NA pAB258-NA pAB258-NA pAB258-NA Recombinantvirus 8 6 + 2 6 + 2 6 + 2 B/Yamanashi/ B/Victoria/504/ B/Hawaii/10/2001B/Hong 166/98 2000 Kong/330/2001 pfu/ml^(a) 0 4 × 10⁶ 9 × 10⁶ 6 × 10⁶ 7× 10⁶

Relatively high titers are obtained by replication of wild typeB/Yamanashi/166/98 in eggs. Experiments were performed to determinewhether this property was an inherent phenotype of the six “internal”genes of this virus. To evaluate this property, the yield of wild typeB/Victoria/504/2000, which replicated only moderately in eggs, wascompared to the yield of the 6+2 reassortant expressing theB/Victoria/504/2000 HA and NA. These viruses in addition to wild typeand recombinant B/Yamanashi/166/98 were each inoculated into 3 or 4embryonated chicken eggs, at either 100 or 1000 pfu. Three daysfollowing infection, the allantoic fluids were harvested from the eggsand the TCID₅₀ titers determined on MDCK cells. The 6+2 reassortantsproduced similar quantities of virus in the allantoic fluid to the wtand recombinant B/Yamanashi/166/98 strain (FIG. 9). The difference intiter between B/Victoria/504/2000 and the 6+2 recombinant wasapproximately 1.6 log₁₀ TCID₅₀ (0.7-2.5 log₁₀ TCID₅₀/mL, 95% CI). Thedifference between B/Victoria/504/2000 and the 6+2 recombinant wereconfirmed on three separate experiments (P<0.001). These resultsdemonstrated that the egg growth properties of B/Yamanashi/166/98 couldbe conferred to HA and NA antigens that are normally expressed fromstrains that replicated poorly in eggs.

Example 8 Molecular Basis for Attenuation of CA B/Ann Arbor/1/66

The MDV-B virus (ca B/Ann Arbor/1/66) is attenuated in humans, shows anattenuated phenotype in ferrets and shows a cold adapted and temperaturesensitive phenotype in cell culture. The deduced amino acid sequences ofthe internal genes of MDV-B were compared with sequences in the LosAlamos influenza database (on the world wide web at: flu.lanl.gov) usingthe BLAST search algorithm. Eight amino acids unique to MDV-B, and notpresent in any other strain were identified (Table 17). Genome segmentsencoding PB1, BM2, NS1, and NS2 show no unique substituted residues. ThePA and M1 proteins each have two, and the NP protein has four uniquesubstituted amino acids (Table 17). One substituted amino acid is foundin PB2 at position 630 (an additional strain B/Harbin/7/94 (AF170572)also has an arginine residue at position 630).

These results suggested that the gene segments PB2, PA, NP and M1 may beinvolved in the attenuated phenotype of MDV-B. In a manner analogous tothat described above for MDV-A, the eight plasmid system can be utilizedto generate recombinant and reassortant (single and/or double, i.e.,7:1; 6:2 reassortants) in a helper independent manner simply byco-transfection of the relevant plasmids into cultured cells asdescribed above with respect to MDV-A. For example, the 6 internal genesfrom B/Lee/40 can be used in conjunction with HA and NA segments derivedfrom MDV-B to generate 6+2 reassortants. TABLE 17 Unique substitutedamino acids of B/Ann Arbor/1/66 Aligned sequences ca B/Ann (wild typeArbor/1/66 viruses) Number of amino amino aligned Nr. pos. acid codonacid codon sequences PB1 0 — 23 PB2 1 630 Arg630 AGA Ser630 AGC 23 PA 2431 Met431 ATG Val431 GTG 23 497 His497 CAT Tyr497 TAT NP 4 55 Ala55 GCCThr55 ACC 26 114 Ala114 GCG Val114 GTG 410 His410 CAT Pro410 CCT, CCC509 Thr509 GAC Ala509 GGC M1 2 159 Gln159 CAA His159 CAT 24 183 Val183GTG M183 ATG BM2 0 — — 24 NS1 0 — — 80 NS2 0 — — 80The deduced amino acid sequence of eight proteins of ca B/Ann Arbor wasused in a BLAST search. Amino acid position which were different betweenMDV-B and the aligned sequences are shown. The nucleotides in the codonsthat are underlined represent the substituted positions.

In order to determine whether the 8 unique amino acid differences hadany impact on the characteristic MDV-B phenotypes, a recombinant viruswas constructed in which all eight nucleotide positions encoded theamino acid reflecting the wt influenza genetic complement. A set ofplasmids was constructed in which the eight residues of the PA, NP, andM1 genes were changed by site directed mutagenesis to reflect the wildtype amino acids (as indicated in Table 17). A recombinant with alleight changes, designated rec53-MDV-B, was generated by cotransfectionof the constructed plasmids onto cocultured COS7-MDCK cells. Thecoculturing of MDCK cells and growth at 33° C. ensured that thesupernatant contained high virus titers six to seven days aftertransfection. The supernatants of the transfected cells were titratedand the titer determined on MDCK cells by plaque assay and PCK cells at33° C. and 37° C.

As shown in FIG. 13, in two different independent experiments, recMDV-Bexpressed the ts-phenotype in both MDCK cells and PCK cells. The triplereassortant virus rec53-MDV-B designed harboring all eight amino acidchanges expressed the non-ts-phenotype, the difference in titer between33° C. and 37° C. was only 0.7 log₁₀ in PCK cells. This titer was lessthan the required 2 log₁₀ difference characteristic of the ts definitionand significantly lower than the ˜3 log₁₀ difference observed withrecMDV-B. These results show that the alteration of the eight aminoacids within PA, NP, and M1 proteins was sufficient to generate anon-ts, wild type-like virus with both homologous and heterologousglycoproteins.

The contribution of each gene segment to the ts phenotype was thendetermined. Plasmid derived recombinants harboring either the PA, NP, orM gene segment with the wild-type amino acid complement were generatedby the DNA cotransfection technique. All single gene recombinantsexhibited growth restriction at 37° C. in MDCK cells and in PCK cells(FIG. 14), indicating that changes in no one gene segment were capableof reverting the ts phenotype. In addition, recombinant viruses thatcarried both the NP and M or PA and M gene segments together alsoretained the ts-phenotype. In contrast, recombinant viruses thatharbored both the PA and NP gene segments had a difference in titerbetween 37° C. and 33° C. of 2.0 log₁₀ or less, similar to therec53-MDV-B. These results show that the NP and PA genes have a majorcontribution to the ts-phenotype.

To determine whether all of the four amino acids in the NP protein andtwo in the PA protein contribute to non-ts, triple gene and double-generecombinants with altered NP and PA genes were generated (FIG. 15). Thesubstitution of two amino acids in the NP protein, A114→V114 andH410→P410 resulted in non-ts phenotype. Viruses with single substitutionH410→P410 in the nucleoprotein showed non-ts phenotype in MDCK and PCK.On the other hand, the single substitution A55→T55 showed ats-phenotype, as did the single substitution at position 509. Theseresults indicate that amino acid residues V114 and P410 in NP areinvolved in efficient growth at 37° C. (FIG. 21A). A similar strategywas employed to dissect the contribution of the two amino acids in thePA gene. A set of recombinants was constructed, each harboring an NPgene segment with four wild-type consensus amino acids and a PA genewith only one of the two consensus wild type amino acids. Substitutionof H497→Y497 remained ts (FIG. 21B), demonstrating that this locus hadlittle impact on expression of the phenotype. In contrast, substitutionof M431 with V431 resulted in reversion of the ts phenotype. Theseresults show that amino acids A114 and H410 in NP and M431 in PA are themajor determinants for temperature sensitivity of MDV-B.

Based on prior evidence, a ts-phenotype and an attenuated phenotype arehighly correlated. It is well established that ca B/Ann Arbor/1/66 virusis not detectable in lung tissue of infected ferrets, whereas nonattenuated influenza B viruses viruses are detectable in lungs afterintranasal infection. To determine whether identical mutation underliethe ts and att phenotypes, the following studies were performed.

Recombinant viruses obtained after transfection were passaged inembryonated chicken eggs to produce a virus stock. Nine week old ferretswere inoculated intranasaly with 0.5 ml per nostril of viruses withtiters of 5.5, 6.0 or 7.0 log₁₀ pfu/ml. Three days after infectionferrets were sacrificed and their lungs and turbinates were examined asdescribed previously.

Ferrets (four animals in each group) were infected intranasaly withrecMDV-B or rec53-MDV-B. Three days after infection virus nasalturbinates and lung tissue were harvested and the existence of virus wastested. No virus was detected in lung tissues of ferrets infected with7.0 log₁₀ pfu recMDV-B. From the four animals infected with rec53-MDV-Bvirus with 7.0 log₁₀ pfu in three animals virus was detected in lungtissue (one animal in this group for unknown reasons). In two out offour lung tissues of ferrets infected with rec53-MDV-B at a lower dose(5.5 log pfu/ml) virus could be isolated from lung tissue. Thus, thechange of the eight unique amino acids in PA, NP, and M1 protein intowild type residues were sufficient to convert a att phenotype into anon-att phenotype.

Since the data in cell culture showed that PA and NP are maincontributors to the ts-phenotype, in a second experiment, ferrets wereinfected with rec53-MDV-B (PA,NP,M), rec62-MDV-B (PA), NP rec71-MDV-B(NP) with 6 log pfu. Two out of four animals infected with rec53-MDV-Bhad virus in the lung. None of the lung tissues of ferrets infected withsingle and double reassortant viruses had detectable levels of virus.Thus, in addition to the amino acids in the PA and NP proteins, the M1protein is important for the att phenotype. Virus with wt PA and NP didnot replicate in ferret lung, indicating that a subset of the mutationsinvolved in attenuation are involved in the ts phenotype.

Thus, the ts and att phenotypes of B/Ann Arbor/1/66 are determined by atmost three genes. The conversion of eight amino acids in the PA, NP, andM1 protein into wild type residues resulted in a recombinant virus thatreplicated efficiently at 37° C. Similarly, a 6+2 recombinant virusrepresenting the six internal genes of MDV-B with the HA and NA segmentsfrom B/HongKong/330/01 showed a ts-phenotype and the triple recombinantwas non-ts.

Our results using the MDV-B backbone indicated that six amino acids weresufficient to convert a ts/att phenotype into a non-ts/non-attphenotype. Therefore, we were interested in determining whether theintroduction of those six ‘attenuation’ residues would transfer thesebiological properties to a heterologous wildtype, non attenuatedinfluenza B virus, such as B/Yamanashi/166/98.

Recombinant wildtype B/Yamanashi/166/98 (recyam) (7) and a recombinantvirus (rec6-Yam): with six amino acid changes PA (V431→M431, H497→Y497),NP (V114→A114, P410→H410), and M1 (H159→Q159, M183→V183) were produced.RecYam showed a 0.17 log10 titer reduction in titer at 37° C. comparedto 33° C., whereas rec6Yam was clearly ts, the difference in viral titerbetween 37° C. and 33° C. was 4.6 log10. Virus was efficiently recoveredfrom ferrets infected with recYam, as expected for a typical wildtypeinfluenza B virus. When rec6Yam was inoculated into ferrets, no viruswas detected in the lung tissues (Table 18). Thus, the transfer of thets/att loci from MDV-B are sufficient to transfer the ts- andatt-phenotypes to a divergent virus. TABLE 18 Attenuation studies inferrets Nasal Recombinant Ts- Dose turbinates^(b) Lung tissue virus wtcomponents^(a) phenotype ferrets [log10pfu] [log10pfu/g][log10EID50/g]^(c) rMDV-B none ts 4 6.0 4.01 <1.5 rec53-B NP, PA, MNon-ts 4 6.0 4.65 3.81 rec62-B NP, PA Non-ts 4 6.0 4.69 <1.5 rec71NP-BNP ts 4 6.0 4.13 <1.5 rec71M-B M ts 4 6.0 4.17 <1.5 RecYam Non-ts 4 6.04.92 3.31 rec6Yam ts 4 6.0 4.02 <1.5^(a)Recombinant viruses with MDV-B backbone that differed in wildtypeamino acids (for details see table 2) were used to infected ferretsintranassally. RecYam is recombinant B/Yamanashi/166/98 and Rec6Yamrepresents a virus that has six ‘MDV-B-attenuation’amino acid changes inNP, PA, and M1 with a B/Yamanashi backbone.^(b)Three days after infection the virus titer of the nasal turbinatesand lung tissue was determined, the average titer of four infectedferrets is shown.^(c)<1.5 indicates that no virus was detected.

As described above with respect to influenza A strains, substitution ofthe residues indicated above, e.g., PB2⁶³⁰ (S630R); PA⁴³¹ (V431M); PA⁴⁹⁷(Y497H); NP⁵⁵ (T55A); NP¹¹⁴ (V114A); NP⁴¹⁰ (P410H); NP⁵⁰⁹ (A509T); M1¹⁵⁹(H159Q) and M1¹⁸³ (M183V), confers the ts and att phenotypes.Accordingly, artificially engineered variants of influenza B strainvirus having one or more of these amino acid substitutions exhibit thets and att phenotypes and are suitable for use, e.g., as master donorstrain viruses, in the production of attenuated live influenza virusvaccines.

Example 9 Rescue of Influenza from Eight Plasmids by Electroporation ofVero Cells

Previously it has been suggested that recombinant influenza A can berescued from Vero cells (Fodor et al. (1999) Rescue of influenza A virusfrom recombinant DNA J. Virol. 73:9679-82; Hoffmann et al. (2002)Eight-plasmid system for rapid generation of influenza virus vaccineVaccine 20:3165-3170). The reported method requires the use of lipidreagents and has only been documented for a single strain of a highlyreplication competent laboratory strains of influenza A (A/WSN/33 andA/PR/8/34), making it of limited application in the production of liveattenuated virus suitable for vaccine production. The present inventionprovides a novel method for recovering recombinant influenza virus fromVero cells using electroporation. These methods are suitable for theproduction of both influenza A and influenza B strain viruses, andpermit the recovery of, e.g., cold adapted, temperature sensitive,attenuated virus from Vero cells grown under serum free conditionsfacilitating the preparation of live attenuated vaccine suitable foradministration in, e.g., intranasal vaccine formulations. In addition toits broad applicability across virus strains, electroporation requiresno additional reagents other than growth medium for the cell substrateand thus has less potential for undesired contaminants. In particular,this method is effective for generating recombinant and reassortantvirus using Vero cells adapted to growth under serum free condition,such as Vero cell isolates qualified as pathogen free and suitable forvaccine production. This characteristic supports the choice ofelectroporation as an appropriate method for commercial introduction ofDNA into cell substrates.

Electroporation was compared to a variety of methods for introduction ofDNA into Vero cells, including transfection using numerous lipid basedreagents, calcium phosphate precipitation and cell microinjection.Although some success was obtained using lipid based reagents for therescue of influenza A, only electroporation was demonstrated to rescueinfluenza B as well as influenza A from Vero cells.

One day prior to electroporation, 90-100% confluent Vero cells weresplit, and seeded at a density of 9×10⁶ cells per T225 flask in MEMsupplemented with pen/strep, L-glutamine, nonessential amino acids and10% FBS (MEM, 10% FBS). The following day, the cells were trypsinizedand resuspend in 50 ml phosphate buffered saline (PBS) per T225 flask.The cells are then pelleted and resuspend in 0.5 ml OptiMEM I per T225flask. Optionally, customized OptiMEM medium containing no human oranimal-derived components can be employed (this can be obtained from themanufacturer of OptiMEM I upon request). Following determination of celldensity, e.g., by counting a 1:40 dilution in a hemocytometer, 5×10⁶cells were added to a 0.4 cm electroporation cuvette in a final volumeof 400 μl OptiMEM I. Twenty μg DNA consisting of an equimolar mixture ofeight plasmids incorporating either the MDV-A or MDV-B genome in avolume of no more than 25 μl was then added to the cells in the cuvette.The cells were mixed gently by tapping and electroporated at 300 volts,950 microFarads in a BioRad Gene Pulser II with Capacitance ExtenderPlus connected (BioRad, Hercules, Calif.). The time constant should bein the range of 28-33 msec.

The contents of the cuvette were mixed gently by tapping and 1-2 minafter electroporation, 0.7 ml MEM, 10% FBS was added with a 1 ml pipet.The cells were again mixed gently by pipetting up and down a few timesand then split between two wells of a 6 well dish containing 2 ml perwell MEM, 10% FBS. The cuvette was then washed with 1 ml MEM, 10% FBSand split between the two wells for a final volume of about 3.5 ml perwell.

In alternative experiments, Vero cells adapted to serum free growthconditions, e.g., in OptiPro (SFM) (Invitrogen, Carlsbad, Calif.) wereelectroporated as described above except that following electroporationin OptiMEM I, the cells were diluted in OptiPro (SFM) in which they weresubsequently cultured for rescue of virus. Subsequent experiments haveshown that, following electroporation, cells may be diluted in OptiMEM Ior customized OptiMEM medium containing no human or animal-derivedcomponents.

The electroporated cells were then grown under conditions appropriatefor replication and recovery of the introduced virus, i.e., at 33° C.for the cold adapted Master Donor Strains. The following day (e.g.,approximately 19 hours after electroporation), the medium was removed,and the cells were washed with 3 ml per well OptiMEM I or OptiPro (SFM).One ml per well OptiMEM I or OptiPro (SFM) containing pen/strep wasadded to each well, and the supernatants were collected daily byreplacing the media. Supernatants were stored at −80° C. in SPG. Peakvirus production was typically observed between 2 and 3 days followingelectroporation.

Therefore, the present invention includes an improved method of rescue,wherein animal cells (e.g., SF Vero cells) are electroporated withpolynucleotides (e.g., plasmids and vectors) of the invention. TABLE 19Results of 8 Plasmid Rescue of MDV strains on Different Cell Types andby Different Transfection Methods Result (Infectious Substrate Method Noof Test Virus Recovered) MDV-B COS-7/MDCK Lipo 3 positive COS-7/MDCKCaPO4 2 positive MRC-5 Lipo 5 negative MRC-5 CaPO4 3 negative MRC-5Electroporation 2 negative WI-38 Lipo 2 negative WI-38 Electroporation 4negative WI-38 Microinjection 1 negative LF1043 Lipo 1 negative LF1043CaPO4 2 negative Vero Lipo 7 negative Vero CaPO4 2 negative Vero/MDCKLipo 1 negative Vero (serum) Electroporation 5 positive (5/5) Vero(serum free) Electroporation 4 positive (4/4) MDV-A Vero (serum)Electroporation 3 positive (3/3) Vero (serum Free) Electroporation 3positive (3/3)

Example 10 Co-Cultivation of Electroporated SF Vero Cells ImprovesEfficiency of Rescue

As discussed above, influenza virus can be rescued from SF vero cells byelectroporation of the cells with plasmids that encode each of the eightsegments of the viral genome. This method can be used to make 6:2viruses composed of the HA and NA from wild type strains of influenzaand the PB1, PB2, PA, NP, NS, and M from a MDV strain, e.g., acold-adapted MDV strain or PR8. For some wild type HA and NA segments,rescue in SF vero cells is inefficient. To this end, it has been foundthat co-cultivation of the electroporated SF vero cells with ChickenEmbryo Kidney (CEK) cells improved the efficiency of the plasmid rescue.For example, when electroporation of SF vero cells was performed torescue an A/Panama 6:2 virus, none of the 30 eggs tested (5 eggs/day,days 2-7 post-electroporation) had detectable HA titers. However, whenan equal sample of the same electroporated SF vero cells wasco-cultivated with CEK cells, 27 out of 30 eggs had detectable HA titers(90% efficiency) and these titers were 100 or better. In addition, thisimproved rescue efficiency was also observed for MDV A. Further,A/Sendai (another 6:2 virus which is difficult to rescue from SF cerocells) has been rescued by the co-cultivation method.

Therefore, the present invention includes an improved method of rescue,wherein electroporated SF vero cells are co-cultivated with another cellselected from the group including, but not limited to: chicken embryokidney (CEK) cells, chicken embryo fibroblasts, primary chick kidneycells, and cells isolated from the chorioallantoic membrane ofembryonated chicken eggs. Other cells useful for this rescue method mayinclude any cell that supports replication of influenza virus and meetsacceptable standards for regulatory approval. Sources of cells include,for example, chicken flocks from SPF chicken flocks.

In one preferred embodiment of the invention, rescue efficiency of virusis improved by at least 10%, or at least 20%, or at least 30%, or atleast 40%, or at least 50%, or at least 60%, or at least 70%, or atleast 80%, or at least 90%, or at least 2-fold, or at least 3-fold, orat least 5-fold.

In another preferred embodiment of the invention, rescue efficiency ofvirus is at least 10%, or at least 20%, or at least 30%, or at least40%, or at least 50%, or at least 60%, or at least 70%, or at least 80%,or at least 90%, or at least 99%. Efficiency can be determined, forexample, by measuring how many eggs injected with the rescued viruses(X) have subsequent detectable HA titers (Y) and dividing Y/X.

Example 11 Influenza Virus Vector System for Gene Delivery

The vectors of the present invention can also be used as gene deliverysystems and for gene therapy. For such applications, it is desirable togenerate recombinant influenza virus, e.g., recombinant influenza A or Bvirus expressing a foreign protein. For example, because segment 7 ofthe influenza B virus is not spliced, it provides a convenient geneticelement for the insertion of heterologous nucleic acid sequences. ThemRNA contains two cistrons with two open reading frames encoding the M1and BM2 proteins. The open reading frame of BM2 or M1 is substituted bythe heterologous sequence of interest, e.g., a gene encoding theenhanced green fluorescent protein (EGFP). Using the plasmid basedvector system of the present invention, the cDNA encoding the openreading frame of M1-EGFP and BM2 are cloned on two different plasmids.The open reading frame is flanked by the non coding region of segment 7,which contains the signals required for replication and transcription.Alternatively, two plasmids are constructed: one containing M1 ORF andthe other containing EGFP-BM2. Co-transfection of the resultant nineplasmids results in the generation of a recombinant influenza B viruscontaining the heterologous gene sequence. Similarly, EGFP can beexpressed from the NS1 segment of influenza A.

The exemplary “green” influenza B virus can be used for standardizationin virus assays, such as micro neutralization assays. The combination ofthe plasmid based technology and the simple detection of proteinexpression (fluorescence derived from EGFP can be monitored bymicroscopy, as illustrated in FIG. 2), permits the optimization ofprotein expression.

Example 12 Genetic Studies of Recent H3N2 Influenza Vaccine Strains

The live attenuated cold-adapted influenza A/AA/6/60 strain, in typicalpreferred embodiments, is the master donor virus (MDV-A) for influenza AFluMist™ vaccines. The 6 internal genes of MDV-A confer the cold-adapted(ca) temperature sensitive (ts) and attenuated (att) phenotypes to eachof the vaccine strains. Using reverse genetics, it is demonstrated thatmultiple amino acids segregated among three gene segments: PB1-K391E,E581G, A661T, PB2-N265S, and NP-D34G which control expression of the tsand att phenotypes of MDV-A. Plasmid rescue of 6:2 vaccine strainsallows more efficient generation of influenza vaccines than classicalreassortment techniques.

The inactivated influenza vaccines for the 2003-04 season contained theA/Panama/99 (H3N2) antigen and were unable to elicit robust antibodyresponses in seronegative children to the drifted A/Fujian/411/02-likeH3N2 strains that circulated during this season. See FIGS. 22 and 23.Unfortunately, A/Fujian/411/02 did not replicate well in embryonatedchicken eggs and, thus, prohibited its use for vaccine manufacture.Using the reverse genetics technology, we showed that the loss in thebalance of the HA and NA activities was responsible for poor replicationof the prototype A/Fujian/411/02 strain in eggs. See FIGS. 29 through34. A/Fujian virus could gain its efficient replication in eggs byeither increasing its HA activity or by reducing its NA activity.Specifically, we demonstrate that a while a several different singleamino acid substitution were able to slightly enhance the replication ofA/Fujian/411/02 strain in eggs several combination gave a much morerobust enhancement. See FIGS. 35 through 38. This work has demonstratedthe feasibility of improving influenza virus growth in embryonatedchicken eggs and/or host cells by introducing specific changes in the HAor NA genes without affecting virus antigenicity.

To produce a strain viable in eggs, a set of related H3N2 6:2reassortants of the A/Fujian/411/02 lineage were evaluated for theirreplication in MDCK cells, embryonated eggs and ferrets. WhileA/Fujian/411/02 did not grow in eggs, an egg-adaptation of this virusresulted in two amino acid substitutions in HA, H183L and V226A whichallowed for virus growth in embryonated eggs. Additionally, anegg-adapted A/Wyoming/03/2003 strain that grew well in eggs and ferretsand the A/Sendai/H-F4962/02 vaccine that grew well in eggs, butreplicated poorly in ferrets, were compared in terms of sequence. It wasdetermined that G186V and V2261 in HA, and/or Q119E and K136Q in NA wererequired for efficient virus replication in vitro and in vivo.Nevertheless, these amino acid changes had no effect on virusantigenicity. Adoption of such techniques to produce strains capable ofgrowth in eggs (for strains that are difficult/problematic to grow ineggs) or to produce strains more capable of growth in eggs (for strainsthat can already grow in eggs) for other influenza viruses iscontemplated and expected.

The molecular basis for the antigenic drift from A/Panama/99 toA/Fujian/02-like strains was studied by changing clusters of HA residuesfrom A/Panama/99 to those of A/Wyoming/03. See FIG. 24. Antigenicity ofthe modified 6:2 reassortants were examined by HAI andmicroneutralization assays using ferret sera from animals immunized witheither A/Panama/99 or A/Wyoming/03. See FIGS. 25 through 28. It wasdetermined that only a few changes were responsible for antigenic driftwhile others had a more dramatic impact on virus replication. Thus, asindicated by the data, reverse genetics are optionally used to modifyvaccine strains to increase vaccine yields without affecting virusantigenicity.

Materials and Methods

Virus strains, cells and antibodies: Wild-type (wt) influenza A virusstrains, A/Fujina/411/02 (A/Fujian), A/Sendai-H/F4962/02 (A/Sendai) andA/Wyoming/03/03 (A/Wyoming), were obtained from the Center for DiseaseControl (Atlanta, Ga.) and amplified once in MDCK cells or inembryonated chicken eggs (eggs). The modified vaccinia virus Ankarastrain expressing the bacteriophage T7 RNA polymerase (MVA-T7) was grownin CEK cells. HEp-2, COS-7 and MDCK cells (obtained from American TypeCulture Collections, ATCC) were maintained in minimal essential medium(MEM) containing 5% fetal bovine serum (FBS). Polyclonal antiseraagainst A/Ann Arbor/6/60, A/Sendai-H/F4962/02 and A/Wyoming/03/03 wereproduced in chicken. Monoclonal antibodies against the NP protein ofinfluenza A were obtained from BioDesign (Saco, Mich.).

Generation of recombinant 6:2 reassortants: Recombinant 6:2 reassortantsthat contained the HA and NA RNA segments of the H3N2 strains reassortedinto MDV-A, were generated according to the previously describedprocedures. Briefly, a set of six plasmids containing the internal genesof MDV-A together with the HA and NA expression plasmids were trasfectedinto the co-cultured COS-7/MDCK cells using TransIT LT1 reagents (Mirus,Madison, Wis.). The transfected cell culture supernatant was collectedat 3 days post transfection and used to infect fresh MDCK cells and10-day-old embryonated chicken eggs. The infected MDCK cells wereincubated at 33° C. until 80-90% cells exhibited cytopathic effect. Theinfected embryonated chicken eggs were incubated at 33° C. for threedays and the allantonic fluids were collected and stored at −80° C. inthe presence of the SPG stabilizer (0.2 M sucrose, 3.8 mM KH₂PO₄, 7.2 mMK₂HPO₄, 5.4 mM monosodium glutamate). Virus titer was determined byplaque assay on MDCK cells incubated under an overlay that consisted of1× L15/MEM, 1% agarose and 1 μg/ml TPCK-trypsin at 33° C. for 3 days.The plaques were enumerated by immunostaining using chicken anti-MDV-Apolyclonal antibodies.

Cloning of HA and NA expression plasmids: To make recombinant 6:2reassortant viruses containing the HA and NA segments of H3N2 subtypeand the six internal MDV-A RNA segments, the HA and NA cDNAs of wtA/Sendai-H/F4962/02 and A/Wyoming/03/03 were amplified by RT-PCR usingSuperscriptIII reverse transcriptase (Invitrogen, Carlsbad, Calif.) andpfu DNA polymerase (Stratagene, La Jolla, Calif.), the extracted vRNA astemplate and the H3 and N2 specific primers. HA-AarI5(5′cacttatattcacctgcctcagggagcaaaagcagggg3′) and HA-AarI3(5′cctaacatatcacctgcctcgtattagtagaaacaagggtgtt3′) primers were used toamplify the HA segment. N2-AarI5(5′cacttatattcacctgcctcagggagcaaaagcaggagt3′) and N2-AarI3(5′cctaacatatcacctgcctcgtattagtagaaacaaggagttt3′) primers were used toamplify the NA segment. Both the HA and NA primer pairs contained theAar I restriction sites that was designed to be comparable to the BsmB Isites present in the pAD3000 pol I/pol II expression plasmid. The HA andNA cDNA clones were sequenced and compared to the consensus HA and NAsequences that were obtained by direct sequencing of the HA and NART-PCR amplified cDNA products. Any mutations introduced into the cDNAclones during the cloning process were corrected by QuickChangesite-directed mutagenesis kit (Stratagene, La Jolla, Calif.).

HAI assay (Hemagglutionation Inhibition Assay for Influenza Virus):Reagents: 0.5% cRBC (washed three times with PBS-, can be used within2-3 days); 96-well U botton microplate; PBS- (without Ca and Mg); Tips;Influenza virus; Serum samples and positive control serum of high andlow titer Preparations: Determine HA titer of virus by HA assay (Usevirus titer at 1:8 for HAI. If HA titer of a given virus is 1:256,divide it by 8. Thus, need to dilute virus 1:32. Prepare 2.5 ml of virusfor each 96 well plate); Treat serum with RDE (receptor destroy enzyme)optional for ferrets samples; Prepare RDE as instructed by manufacturer;Combine RDE and serum sample at 1:4 dilution. For example, add 100 ul ofserum to 300 ul of RDE. Vortex the mix and incubate overnight (18-20 hr)in 37° C. incubator. Heat mixture at 56° C. for 45-50 min. Screen serumfor non-specific agglutinins; Mix 25 ul of RDE-treated serum with 25 ulof PBS- by pippetting up and down 3×; Add 50 ul of 0.5% cRBC to the mixand to the control well with only PBS-; Incubate at RT for 30-45 min (+:indicates partial or complete non-specific hemagglutination −: indicatesno hemagglutination); Non-specific cRBC agglutinis can be removed bypre-incubation of serum with packed RBC at 20:1 ratio at 4° C. for 1 hr,followed by centrifugation at 2000 rpm for 10 min at 4° C. 4) Controlscan typically include the following: cRBC cell control; Virus backtitration: 2-fold dilution of 8 units/50 ul virus diluted from 1:2 to1:32 to make sure that virus used is at the correct concentrations;Positive serum control: dilute known titer serum 2-fold seriallytogether with the test serum samples. A typical HAI protocol cancomprise: Dilute serum samples two-fold serially; Add 25 ul of PBS- toeach well; Add 25 ul of virus to well 1A (e.g., 1:2), mix by pippettingup and down 3×; Transfer 25 ul from well A to well B (e.g., 1:4) and mixas above 3×, repeat dilution until well H (e.g., 1:256); Add virus 25 ul(8 unit/50 ul) to diluted serum samples, mix up and down 3× and incubateat RT for 30-40 min; Add 50 ul of 0.5% cRBC, mix well by pippeting upand down 3×; Incubate at RT for 30-45 min.; Record hemagglutination. TheHAI titer is defined as the highest dilution of the serum thatcompletely inhibits hemagglutination. If no inhibition is observed, thetiter is <1:4. If all wells display inhibition, the titer is >1:256.

Measurement of the neuraminidase activity of the transiently expressedNA protein: To measure the neuraminidase activity of the NA proteins, wtNA and its modified derivatives were expressed from the plasmidtransfected cells. To obtain a high level of expression of the NAproteins, the NA RNA was transcribed from the T7 and CMV promoters asthe-gene was inserted downstream of these dual promoters. HEp-2 cells in10 cm dishes were infected with MVA-T7 at moi of 5.0 for 1 hr followedby transfection of 5 μg of the NA plasmid using Lipofectmine 2000reagent (Invitrogen, Carlsbad, Calif.). The transfected cells wereincubated at 35° C. for 48 hr. After washing with phosphate-bufferedsaline (PBS), the cells were scraped from the dishes and lysed in 100 μlof 0.125M NaOAc, pH 5.0. The neuraminidase activity in the transfectedcells was determined by a fluorimetric assay. After one time offreezing-thawing, 50 μl of cell lysates were 2-fold serially diluted andincubated with 150 μl of 1.2 mM2′-(4-methylumbelliferyl)-α-D-N-Acetylneuraminic Acid (MU-NANA)substrate (Sigma, St. Louis, Mo.) at 37° C. for 1 hr and stopped by 75μl of 1.0 M Glycine (pH 5.5). The fluorescence level of the releasedchromophore 4-methylumbelliferone was determined at 362 nm on aSpectroMAX plate reader. The level of each NA protein expressed in thetransfected cells was monitored by Western blotting using chickenanti-A/Wyoming antisera. The neuraminidase activities of wt A/Sendai andA/Wyoming viruses containing 6.0 log₁₀PFU in 100 μl were also measuredby the fluorimetric assay.

Receptor binding and replication of 6:2 recombinants in MDCK cells: HAreceptor-binding and growth kinetics of recombinant 6:2 reassortantswere determined in MDCK cells. MDCK cells in six-well plates wereinfected with 6:2 A/Fujian, A/Sendai, A/Wyoming and two modifiedrecombinant viruses at a moi of 1.0. After 30 min of adsorption ateither 33° C. or 4° C., the infected cells were either washed threetimes with PBS, or directly overlaid with 3 ml of Opti-MEM I containing1 μg/ml TPCK-trypsin and incubated at 33° C. One set of the infectedplates was fixed with 1% paraformaldehyde at 6 hr post infection for 15min at room temperature, and permeablized with 0.2% Triton X-100 in PBSfor 15 min followed by immunofluorescence analysis using anti-NPmonoclonal antibodies. The cell images captured by ORCA-100 digitalcamera were analyzed by Compix image capture and dynamic intensityanalysis software, Version 5.3 (Cranberry Township, PA) to calculate thepercentage of the infected cells. Another set of plates was incubated at33° C. At various times of intervals, 250 μl of culture supernatant wascollected and stored at −80° C. in the presence of SPG prior to virustitration. After each aliquot was removed, an equal amount of freshmedium was added to the cells. The virus titer in these aliquots wasdetermined by plaque assay on MDCK cells at 33° C.

To determine whether the binding difference between these virusesaffected virus growth kinetics in MDCK cells, the infected MDCK cellswere incubated at 33° C. and the culture supernatants were collected atvarious times for virus titration. When adsorbed at 33° C., 6:2 A/Fujianhad slower growth kinetics and lower titer (FIG. 2), 6:2 A/Sendai,A/Fujian with HA-V1861226 or HA-L183A226 behaved similarly to 6:2A/Wyoming. When adsorption was done at 4° C., 6:2 A/Fujian as well as6:2 A/Sendai had slower growth kinetics. 6:2 A/Wyoming and the twoA/Fujian variants grew similarly. These results were consistent with thevirus-binding assay whereas the washing step reduced efficient infectionof A/Fujian at both temperatures.

Antigenicity of 6:2 recombinant viruses: Antigenicity of each virus wasanalyzed by hemaglutinin inhibition (HAI) assay using ferretanti-A/Sendai and anti-A/Wyoming sera. Aliquots of 25 μl of 2-foldserially diluted ferret antisera were incubated with 25 μl viruscontaining 4 HA units of 6:2 reassostant viruses at 37° C. for 1 hrfollowed by incubation with 50 μl of 0.5% turkey red blood cells (RBC)at 25° C. for 45 min. The HAI titer was defined as the reciprocal of thehighest serum dilution that inhibited hemaglutinnation.

Generation of 6:2 A/Fujian, A/Sendai, and A/Wyoming Vaccine Strains

Wild-type (wt) influenza A virus strains, A/Fujian/411/02,A/Sendai-H/F4962/02 and A/Wyoming/03/03 were obtained from the Centerfor Disease Control (Atlanta, Ga.) and amplified once in MDCK cells orin embryonated chicken eggs. As indicated in Table 20, A/Fujian was onlypassaged for three times in cell culture, whereas A/Sendai and A/Wyomingwent through 11 passages in eggs. The HA and NA sequences of these threestrains were determined by sequencing of the RT-PCR products using vRNAextracted from these viruses. The difference in the HA and NA sequenceof these three H3N2 strains is listed in Table 1. A/Sendai was identicalto A/Fujian in its HA1 amino acid sequence but differed in the NAsequence at three amino acids at positions 119, 146 and 347. A/Wyominghad the NA sequence identical to that of A/Fujian, but differed fromA/Fujian and A/Sendai in HA1 by four amino acids. In addition, bothA/Sendai and A/Wyoming had Glu-150 instead of Gly-150 in the HA2. Afterone time of amplification in MDCK cells, the 183 residue in HA1 of wtA/Fujian mutated from His-183 to Leu-183 and it was difficult to isolatethe wt A/Fujian virus with His-183, indicating that the virus withHis-183 had growth advantage in vitro.

These three wt viruses grew differently in MDCK cells, reaching titersof 6.1, 8.1 and 6.7 log₁₀PFU/ml for wt A/Fujian, wt A/Sendai and wtA/Wyoming, respectively. wt A/Fujian replicated poorly in eggs, reachinga titer of 4.1 log₁₀PFU/ml (Table 20). The virus isolated from eggs hadthe H183L change in the HA. In contrast, wt A/Sendai and wt A/Wyominggrew well in eggs having titers of 9.0 and 8.9 log₁₀PFU/ml,respectively.

To confirm that the HA and NA segments of these H3N2 strains controlledvirus replication in eggs and cells, the HA and NA gene segments werereassorted with the internal gene segments of the cold adapted A/AnnArbor/6/60 strain, the master donor virus for live attenuated influenzaFluMist vaccines (MDV-A) to generate three 6:2 reassortant viruses.Replication of these three viruses was evaluated in MDCK cells andembryonated chicken eggs. 6:2 A/Fujian (6.2 log₁₀PFU/ml) showed a lowertiter than 6:2 A/Sendai (7.1 log₁₀PFU/ml) and A/Wyoming (7.0log₁₀PFU/ml) in MDCK cells. Similar to wt A/Fujian, 6:2 A/Fujianreplicated poorly in embryonated chicken eggs with a titer of 4.1log₁₀PFU/ml. Both 6:2 A/Sendai and A/Wyoming replicated to higher titersof 8.7and 8.1 log₁₀PFU/ml, respectively. Thus, the transfer of the wt HAand NA gene segments into MDV-A did not change the capability of eachvirus to replicate in eggs. TABLE 20 Comparison of wt and recombinant6:2 A/Fujian/411/02-like strains in HA and NA sequence and theirreplication in MDCK cells and eggs. Amino acid positions HA1 HA2 NAVirus strains 128 186 219 226 150 119 136 347 A/Fujian/411/02⁽¹⁾ (C1/C2)T G S V G E Q H A/Sendai-H/F4962/02 (CxE8/E3) — — — — E Q K YA/Wyoming/03/03 (ck2E2/E9) A V Y/F I E — — — Virus titer (log₁₀PFU/ml ±SE)⁽³⁾ Virus strains MDCK Eggs (Passage history) wt 6:2 wt 6:2A/Fujian/411/02⁽¹⁾ (C1/C2) 6.1 ± 0.3 6.2 ± 0.3⁽²⁾ 4.1 ± 0.6 4.2 ± 0.5A/Sendai-H/F4962/02 (CxE8/E3) 8.1 ± 0.2 7.1 ± 0.1 9.0 ± 0.3 8.7 ± 0.2A/Wyoming/03/03 (ck2E2/E9) 6.7 ± 0.5 7.0 ± 0.4 8.9 ± 0.3 8.1 ± 0.1⁽¹⁾wt A/Fujian had the H183L change after one time passage in MDCK cellsand eggs.⁽²⁾Recombinant 6:2 A/Fujian contained E150 in HA2.⁽²⁾Virus titers were expressed as mean log₁₀PFU/ml ± SE from two or moresamples.Effect of Amino Acid Changes in the NA on Neuraminidase Activities andVirus Replication

A/Fujian differed from A/Sendai by three amino acids in NA, E119Q, Q136Kand H347Y (Table 20), it is hypothesized that one or more of thesechanges enabled A/Sendai to replicate in embryonated chicken eggs to ahigher titer than A/Fujian. Substitutions of E119 by G, D, A or Vresidues have been reported for several anti-neuraminidase drugresistant strains that resulted in the reduced neuraminidase activity.To determine whether the E119Q or either of the other two changes in theNA had an effect on the NA activity of A/Fujian and on its ability toreplicate in embryonated chicken eggs, single and double substitutionmutations were introduced into A/Fujian NA expression plasmids and theNA activity in the transfected HEp-2 cells was measured. In addition,recombinant 6:2 recombinant viruses bearing mutations in the A/Fujian NAwere also recovered and their growth in MDCK cells and eggs werecompared (Table 21). A/Fujian (E119Q136H147) had approximately 80%higher NA activity compared to that of A/Sendai (Q119K136Y147). SingleQ119 mutation had 66% of NA activity, Y347 change had minimal effect onNA activity but K136 only had 25% activity. Double mutations, K136Y347,Q119Y347, and Q119K136 had reduced NA activity at levels of 29%, 52% and25% of that A/Fujian, respectively. These data indicated that thesethree NA residues affected the NA activity in the order ofK136>Q119>Y347.

The correlation of the NA activity of the NA mutants with virusreplication in embryonated chicken eggs was examined (Table 21). The sixmodified viruses were shown to replicate well in MDCK cells reachingtiters ranging from 6.2 to 6.9 log₁₀PFU/ml, but replicated significantlydifferent in eggs. FJ-Q119 and FJ-347 that had 66% and 99% NA activityof A/Fujian were unable to grow in eggs. FJ-K136 with 25% NA activitywas able to grow to a titer of 4.8 log₁₀PFU/ml in eggs, but 4.0 log₁₀lower than that of A/Sendai (8.8 log₁₀PFU/ml). Unexpectedly, althoughK136Y347 significantly decreased the NA activity in vitro, therecombinant virus carrying these two mutations (FJ-K136Y347) was notable to replicate in embryonated chicken eggs. Q119Y347 that had 52% ofNA activity replicated in eggs to a titer of 4.5 log₁₀fpu/ml. Q119K136that had the NA activity slightly higher than that of A/Sendaireplicated to a titer of 6.2 log₁₀fpu/ml but was still 2.6 log₁₀ lowerthan A/Sendai. These results indicated that each of the three NAresidues differed between A/Fujian and A/Sendai impacted virusreplication differently. Although several NA mutations could reduced theNA activity to the level close to that A/Sendai, only Q136K and E119Qchanges could result in significant improvement in virus replication inembryonated chicken eggs. Since the Q119K136 double mutations did notreplicate as efficiently as A/Sendai virus in eggs, the Y347 residuemight also affect virus replication in eggs. TABLE 21 Effects of NAresidues on virus replication in MDCK cells and embryonated eggs.Virus⁽²⁾ titer NA residues NA activity⁽¹⁾ (Log₁₀PFU/ml) NA 119 136 347(Mean ± SE) MDCK Eggs A/Fujian E Q H 100 6.5 <1.5 FJ-Q119 Q — — 66 ± 36.7 <1.5 FJ-Y347 — — Y 99 ± 1 6.6 <1.5 FJ-K136 — K — 25 ± 1 6.6 4.8FJ-K136Y347 — K Y 29 ± 3 6.5 <1.5 FJ-Q119Y347 Q — Y 52 ± 4 6.6 4.5FJ-Q119K136 Q K — 25 ± 1 6.2 6.2 A/SENDAI Q K Y 21 ± 1 6.9 8.8⁽¹⁾The NA activities in NA cDNA-transfected HEp-2 cells are expressed asthe percentage of that of A/Fujian (mean ± standard error) from fourindependent experiments.⁽²⁾Recombinant 6:2 viruses were generated using A/Fujian HA and NA orA/Fujian NA with mutations indicated.Effects of HA Residues on Virus Replication

The changes of the four HA1 residues in A/Wyoming/03/03 that differedfrom A/Fujian were investigated for their roles in virus replication.The single and multiple substitution mutations were introduced intoA/Fujian HA cDNA and the modified HA plasmids were introduced into MDV-Atogether with either A/Fujian NA. All of the 6:2 reassortant virusmutants replicated well in MDCK cells but grew differently inembryonated chicken eggs (Table 33). The 6:2 reassortants with A/FujianHA (T128G186S219V226) were unable to replicate in eggs. A single T128Achange did not improve virus growth in eggs. However, single G186V orV2261 change resulted in increased virus replication in eggs. DoubleG186V and V2261 changes in HA replicated efficiently in eggs. Additionalsubstitutions at residues 128 and/or 219 did not significantly increasevirus replication. Thus, a minimal of two G186V and V2261 changesenabled 6:2 A/Fujian to grow efficiently in embryonated chicken eggs.TABLE 22 EFFECTS OF HA RESIDUES ON VIRUS REPLICATION IN EMBRYONATEDEGGS. HA residues Virus titer in eggs Virus⁽¹⁾ 128 186 219 226(log₁₀PFU/ml) A/Fujian T G S V <1.5 HA-A128 A — — — <1.5 HA-V186 — V — —4.9 HA-I226 — — — I 5.2 HA-V186I226 — V — I 7.6 HA-V186Y219I226 — V Y I7.5 A/Wyoming A V Y I 7.3⁽¹⁾Virus recovered from the transfected cells contained A/Fujian NA andHA with the indicated amino acid changes.Adaptation of 6:2 A/Fujian/411/02

To determine whether 6:2 A/Fujian strain could be adapted to grow inembryonated chicken eggs, the virus was amplified in MDCK cells followedby passage in eggs (Table 23). When 3.0 log₁₀PFU of virus was inoculatedinto an egg, less than 2.0 log₁₀PFU/ml of virus was detected in theharvested allantonic fluid. Infectious virus could not be recoveredfollowing passages of this material. During the second passageexperiment, the amount of virus inoculated into embryonated chicken eggswas increased to 5.9 log₁₀PFU. A titer of 3.9 log₁₀PFU/ml was detectedin the harvested allantonic fluid (FJ-EP1) and an additional passage ineggs increased virus titer to 6.2 log₁₀PFU/ml (FJ-EP2). A furtherpassage in eggs (FJ-EP3) increased virus titer to 8.2 log₁₀PFU/ml.Sequence analysis of the FJ-EP2 virus revealed an A to U mutation at nt625 in the HA RNA segment which resulted in H183L change in the HAprotein. Further analysis showed this change also occurred during virusamplification in MDCK cells. The H183L mutation was also found in the wtA/Fujain HA during its replication in MDCK and eggs as describedpreviously. An additional U to C mutation at nt 754 of HA resulting inV226A substitution was found in the FJ-EP3 amplified virus (Table 23).No changes were detected in the NA segment.

To confirm that H183L and V226A mutations in HA were indeed responsiblefor the increased replication of 6:2 A/Fujian in eggs, H183L and V226Awere introduced into A/Fujian HA singly or in combination. Threerecombinant viruses were obtained and they grew to a titer of 7.4log₁₀PFU/ml for FJ-H183L, 7.9 log₁₀PFU/ml for FJ-V226A and 8.4log₁₀PFU/ml for FJ-H183L/V226A (Table 23). Therefore, H183L and V226Aindependently contributed to the improved replication of A/Fujian virusin embryonated chicken eggs. TABLE 23 Mutations in the HA of egg-adapted6:2 A/Fujian revertants and their replication in embryonated eggs. Virustiters Virus Mutations at nucleotide (amino acid) (Log₁₀PFU/ml)Egg-passaged FJ-EP1 ND¹ 3.9 FJ-EP2 A625U (H183L) 6.2 FJ-EP3 A625U(H183L), U745C (V226A) 8.2 Recombinants FJ-183L A625T (H183L) 7.4FJ-226A T745C (V226A) 7.9 FJ-183L/226A A625U (H183L), U745C (V226A) 8.4¹Not determined.Receptor-Binding Properties and Replication of Recombinant Viruses

From the above studies, the NA changes that reduced the NA activity ofA/Fujian were shown to be sufficient for this virus to grow in eggs. Onthe other hand, the HA changes (G186V and V226I or H183L and V226A)might have increased receptor-binding affinity to compensate for thehigher NA activity of A/Fujian. To determine whether the changes in theHA protein of A/Fujian increased its receptor-binding ability,adsorption of 6:2 A/Fujian carrying HA-V186I226 change and egg-adapted6:2 A/Fujian that contained HA-L183A226 changes were compared to 6:2A/Fujian, A/Sendai, and A/Wyoming. Each virus was adsorbed onto MDCKcells at moi of 1.0 for 30 min at 4° C. or 33° C., the inoculum wasremoved and the infected cells were washed three times or without thewashing step. After 6 hr of incubation at 33° C., the percentage of theinfected cells was determined by immunofluorescence analysis usinganti-NP antibody. As shown in FIG. 36, 6:2 A/Fujian and A/Sendaiinfected 26-27% of cells when adsorption was performed at 4° C., but themajority of viruses were readily removed by the washing step. At 33° C.,washing greatly reduced infection of 6:2 A/Fujian virus (6.2% comparedto 37.8%) but did not have significant effect on the infection of 6:2A/Sendai (42.8% compared to 51.7%). In contrast, 6:2 A/Wyoming, A/Fujianwith HA-V186I226 or HA-LI 83A226 had similar infection rate no matterwhether the cells were adsorbed at 4° C. or 33° C. and with or without awashing step. These data indicated that A/Fujian and A/Sendai HA hadsuch a low binding affinity that the bound viruses at 4° C. could bereadily washed off from the cells. The binding and virus entry kineticswere faster at 33° C., thus, the washing step had a minimal impact on6:2 A/Sendai virus infection. However, the majority of the bound 6:2A/Fujian was washed off at the similar condition because its higher NAactivity prevented efficient virus binding at 33° C. (data not shown).

Antigenicity of Recombinant Viruses

To examine whether viruses with the modified HA and NA residues affectedvirus antigenicity, haemagglutination inhibition assay (HAI) wasperformed using ferret anti-A/Wyoming and anti-A/Sendai sera (Table 24).Anti-A/Wyoming or anti-A/Sendai ferret sera had a similar HAI titer whenmeasured with either 6:2 A/Fujian or A/Sendai virus. A slightly higherHAI titer was detected with 6:2 A/Wyoming virus, probably due to thetighter binding of A/Wyoming HA to the cell receptor on the red bloodcells. The two modified viruses (A/FujianHA-V186I226 and A/FujianHA-L183A226) had HAI titer similar to A/Wyoming when measured by eitherserum. There results indicated that the amino acid difference betweenA/Sendai and A/Wyoming and the modified HA viruses generated in thisstudy did not alter virus antigenicity. TABLE 24 Antigenicity ofmodified 6:2 A/Fujian viruses HA NA Antigenicity (log₂HAI)⁽²⁾ Virus⁽¹⁾128 183 186 219 226 119 136 347 anti-A/WY anti-A/SD A/Fujian T H G S V EQ H 9 9 A/Wyoming A — V Y I — — — 11 10 HA-V186I226 — — V — I — — Y 1111 HA-L183A226 — L — — A — — — 11 11⁽¹⁾A/Fujian was grown in MDCK cells and the rest of viruses were grownin eggs.⁽²⁾Antigenicity was measured by HAI assay using A/Wyoming (anti-A/WY) orA/Sendai (anti-A/SD) immunized ferret serum with the indicated virusantigens

While the foregoing invention has been described in some detail forpurposes of clarity and understanding, it will be clear to one skilledin the art from a reading of this disclosure that various changes inform and detail can be made without departing from the true scope of theinvention. For example, all the techniques and apparatus described abovemay be used in various combinations. All publications, patents, patentapplications, or other documents cited in this application areincorporated by reference in their entirety for all purposes to the sameextent as if each individual publication, patent, patent application, orother document were individually indicated to be incorporated byreference for all purposes.

In particular, the following patent applications are incorporated byreference in their entirety: U.S. Provisional Application Nos.60/574,117, filed May 24, 2004; 60/578,962 file Jun. 12, 2004;60/532,164 filed Dec. 23, 2003; PCT Application No. US03/12728, filedApr. 25, 2003; and U.S. application Ser. No.10/423,828, filed Apr. 25,2003.

1. A method of rescue of influenza virus, wherein animal cells areelectroporated with plasmids that encode an influenza RNA polymerase andnucleoprotein and wherein the electroporated animal cells areco-cultivated with another cell type.
 2. The method of claim 1, whereinthe animal cells are Vero cells.
 3. The method of claim 1, wherein theanimal cells are SF Vero cells.
 4. The method of claim 1, wherein saidanother cell type is CEK cells.
 5. The method of claim 1, wherein theinfluenza virus is an influenza A virus.
 6. The method of claim 1,wherein the influenza virus is an influenza B virus.
 7. The method ofclaim 1, wherein the influenza virus is a cold adapted virus.
 8. Themethod of claim 1, wherein the influenza virus is an attenuated virus.9. The method of claim 1, wherein the number of plasmids electroporatedis eight.
 10. The method of claim 1, wherein the number of plasmidselectroporated is twelve.
 11. The method of claim 1, wherein theefficiency of said rescue of influenza virus is at least 90%.
 12. Aninfluenza virus produced by the method of claim
 1. 13. The influenzavirus of claim 1, wherein said rescued influenza virus comprises vRNAsegments derived from A/PR/8/34.
 14. The influenza virus of claim 1,wherein said rescued influenza virus comprises vRNA segments derivedfrom MDV-A.
 15. A vaccine composition comprising the influenza virus ofclaim
 1. 16. A method for producing influenza viruses in cell culture,the method comprising: i) introducing a plurality of vectors comprisingan influenza virus genome into a population of Vero cells byelectroporation; ii) co-cultivating the population of Vero cells withanother cell type under conditions permissive for viral replication;and, iii) recovering a plurality of influenza viruses.
 17. A method ofrescue of influenza virus, wherein (a) animal cells are electroporatedwith cell expression vectors which direct the expression in said cellsof genomic or antigenomic vRNA segments, and a nucleoprotein, and anRNA-dependent polymerase, such that ribonucleoprotein complexes can beformed and viral particles can be assembled; and (b) culturing saidcells wherein viral particles are packaged and rescued.
 18. The methodof claim 17, wherein assembly does not require a helper virus. 19-25.(canceled)